Nowadays labor migration plays a very important role in the mountainous areas of countries such as Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Pakistan. The quality and direction of migration as well as its economic, social, and cultural impacts on the life of communities have changed, along with the increase in the numbers of migrants. There are conflicting opinions about whether temporary labor migration promotes or hinders the development of mountainous regions. While traveling along mountain roads in Central Asian countries, we investigated whether labor migration stimulates the development of mountain regions, interviewing local inhabitants, migrants, businessmen, authorities, and local representatives of international organizations. The data collected on our travels was used in an International Organization for Migration (IOM) research project on labor migration in Central Asian countries, Russia, Afghanistan, and Pakistan in 2004. The present article summarizes the results of our research and highlights a number of issues related to the economic and social impacts of labor migration.

Oaxaca is not just a political unit but a land of diverse traditions and languages, characterized by a difficult landscape with 3 major mountain ranges and a history of colonization and exploitation. These components make Oaxaca a special place in Mexico, where diversity constitutes a form of wealth that contrasts with the conditions of poverty and marginality in which its population lives. Today Oaxaca is considered the second poorest state in Mexico. Economic hardship and social inequality are important factors that trigger migration. Oaxaca has a long tradition of outmigration dating back to the early 1900s. But outmigration has increased so dramatically in recent decades that almost half of the Oaxacan population have become permanent or temporary residents of the Mexico City metropolitan area, the northern states of Mexico, or the United States. The present article describes the experience of an Oaxacan coffee producers' organization and its members' efforts to offer alternatives to outmigration and improve their livelihoods in their mountain environment and move towards greater gender equality.

Trade with Tibet and the factors associated with its maintenance (agriculture and livestock) were the prime occupation of Johaaris and Darmis tribesmen until 1962, when the Sino–Indian war brought an immediate end to this thriving lifeline. The loss of trade brought about drastic changes in the transhumant lifestyle—fewer households arriving at their summer homes, a smaller livestock population, disappearance of traditional handicrafts, and increased exploitation of wild medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), with traditional crops being replaced by more remunerative crops such as chives (Allium stracheyii) and caraway (Carum carvi) as the chief source of livelihood. The present study highlights the causal factors behind changes in the lifestyles of these traditional people in Uttarakhand, India, and the concomitant changes in crop biodiversity and MAPs in the region. It concludes with proposals for possible alternatives for a sustainable future for these people.

Rural–urban migration is having a considerable socioeconomic and environmental effect in mountain regions. In response, most rural development programs discourage outmigration on the grounds that it has negative social consequences and compromises ecological sustainability. However, rural–urban migration generally improves the living standards of migrants and leads to the disintensification of land use in fragile ecosystems with low productivity, thus stimulating ecosystem recovery and improving watershed and biodiversity protection—as shown by experience in the Caribbean and South America. These advantages have emerged even in the absence of any planning and could be maximized if international funding agencies, NGOs, and local governments re-evaluated rural development strategies. At a minimum, rural–urban migration is a reality that should not be ignored. More importantly, rural–urban migration provides an opportunity to improve the living conditions of marginal populations while protecting the environment.

As in many other mountain areas, peripheral regions of the Swiss Alps are experiencing outmigration, especially of younger people, due to lack of opportunities. Winter tourism, often the backbone of regional economies, is declining in many small- and medium-sized resorts. At the same time, agricultural decline is leading to land abandonment and natural reforestation, which may have implications for the sustainability of development in these areas. In a case study of the European Union (EU) BioScene research project, 3 agricultural and land use scenarios were developed for the Surses valley in the Canton of Grisons and assessed with respect to their sustainability implications, including discussions with a local stakeholder group. In mitigating outmigration from this peripheral area, it is important that local people can identify with the development taking place in their region, and with the landscape in which they live. Based on the discussion of the scenarios with local stakeholders and the sustainability assessment, it was possible to formulate policy recommendations.

Although the European Union has invested important subsidies in European mountain areas since the 1980s, the influence of these subsidies on the economy and society of these regions has so far not been analyzed. For this reason, we conducted a quantitative analysis of the effects of public policies on the development of the Central Pyrenees from 1986 to 2001. During this period, around €170 million (US$ 226.3 million) was invested in development of the Central Pyrenees through the Common Agricultural Policy and Regional Policy. However, in our analysis of correlations between several socioeconomic factors, we found that the number of inhabitants, farms, and employees in the primary and secondary sectors had decreased, while the tourist sector was becoming a major part of the economy. These findings seem to indicate that public policies had little effect; but although our analyses revealed that the various subsidies did little to promote structural improvement, they were important for supporting inhabitants (for example farmers) in the Pyrenees, because they are a form of complementary income, they allow communities to maintain farming activities, and they favor small enterprises linked to tourist activities—thus preventing depopulation. As the Pyrenees have little capacity for endogenous development, we argue that the current public policies should be maintained for the foreseeable future.

The present paper analyzes the changes in migration patterns of a Tibetan-style transhumance livelihood system for a period of 20 years in northwest Yunnan, China. Between 1984 and 2005, the average number of pastures for rotational use in the 12 investigated villages decreased from 6.2 to 3.9, and the average number of stops on the annual migration route decreased from 8.3 to 5.8. The number of days during which the animals depend on stall feeding and low-elevation shrubs increased from 231.3 to 270, while those spent in forest belts decreased by 32.6% and those in alpine rangelands by 25.5%. These changes have intensified the pressure on low-elevation ecosystems and grazing resources. Winter fodder supply, rather than carrying capacity based on overall grazing resources at all elevations, should be used to determine the scale of pastoral development. Encroachment of woody plants is a major cause of alpine rangeland degradation, which used to be unjustifiably attributed to a growing livestock population. Reintroduction of traditional management tools such as burning can effectively increase the area of available rangeland resources and curb localized degradation processes by evening out grazing pressure.

People's perceptions of their environment in high mountain rangelands ultimately affect the fragile ecosystems on which they depend, and thus their welfare. This is especially true in developing countries, where the livelihoods of people living in such ecosystems depend on grazing livestock. The present study, conducted in the central mountain region of Peru, used photographs and Q methodology to investigate the criteria and preferences that shepherds and local administrators apply in making grazing management decisions. The results showed 2 different sets of criteria and preferences. In the first set of preferences the condition of the grassland, particularly the height of the vegetation, was the main criterion. In the second set, the color of the vegetation was the key criterion. We discuss implications for the further use of this methodology.

The present article examines the causes of deforestation in southwest China on the basis of listening to peasants' own descriptions of their role in illegal timber cutting. It finds that a sense of “relative deprivation” amongst China's rural poor has encouraged poor environmental management. Peasants justify illegal tree cutting by pointing to China's rapidly increasing inequalities, their lack of economic opportunity, and the absence of economic support from the (corrupt) government. These issues, combined with continuing institutional problems with forest management after decollectivization, convince peasants that ignoring environmental conservation edicts and cashing in on their trees is a good choice. This study identifies relative poverty and social discontent as major factors driving deforestation.

The pattern and magnitude of deforestation that occurred from 1972 to 2000 in the south central Rift Valley of Ethiopia were analyzed using remote sensing change detection techniques. The results show that natural forest cover declined from 16% in 1972 to 2.8% in 2000. The total natural forest cleared between 1972 and 2000 amounted to 40,324 ha, corresponding to an annual loss of 1440 ha. The total loss was 82% of the 1972 forest cover and the annual loss was equivalent to 0.9% of the national figure. The forest decline in the area involved proximate causal factors as well as causal factors that are more spatially diffuse and are part of the long-term evolution of a region much larger than the study area. In order of importance, the major causes of change were small-scale agriculture, commercial logging, and commercial farms. Two major modes of change were observed: 1) internal, ie openings created by small farm plots, grazing lands, and villages; and 2) external, ie expansion of agriculture from the exterior into the forests. The main consequences of deforestation were habitat destruction and decline of water availability.

Three new records of the highest treelines in the northern hemisphere are presented here, based on the definition of a “tree.” The tree species with the highest treeline in the northern hemisphere is Juniperus tibetica Kom. The highest forest stand is located at 4900 m in southeast Tibet. The highest tree stands of Juniperus indica Bertol. in the Himalaya were found in northern Bhutan at 4750 m. Information from such observations is decisive for the development of hypotheses on the limits of tree growth. We compare the present findings with findings on highest treelines in other mountain areas worldwide and draw some conclusions.

Together with its partners and regional member countries, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) shares a vision of prosperous and secure mountain communities living in peace, equity, and environmental sustainability. This vision defines ICIMOD's overall goal: secure and sustainable livelihoods for mountain peoples. ICIMOD's work as a “Mountain Learning and Knowledge Center” builds on achievements, competence, and lessons that the Centre and its partners have learned over the 2 preceding decades. ICIMOD is mandated to work in the Hindu Kush–Himalayan (HKH) region, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan.