We examined spatial and temporal foraging patterns of Caspian terns and double-crested cormorants nesting in the Columbia River estuary, to potentially identify circumstances where juvenile salmonids listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act might be more vulnerable to predation by these avian piscivores. Data were collected during the 1998 and 1999 breeding seasons, using point count surveys of foraging birds at 40 sites along the river's banks, and using aerial strip transect counts throughout the estuary for terns. In 1998, terns selected tidal flats and sites with roosting beaches nearby for foraging, making greater use of the marine/mixing zone of the estuary later in the season, particularly areas near the ocean jetties. In 1999, cormorants selected foraging sites in freshwater along the main channel with pile dikes present, particularly early in the season. Foraging trends in the other year for each species were generally similar to the above but usually not significant. During aerial surveys we observed 50% of foraging and commuting terns within 8 km of the Rice Island colony, and ≤ 5% of activity occurred ≥ 27 km from this colony in both years. Disproportionately greater cormorant foraging activity at pile dikes may indicate greater vulnerability of salmonids to predation at those features. Colony relocations to sites at sufficient distance from areas of relatively high salmonid abundance may be a straightforward means of reducing impacts of avian predation on salmonids than habitat alterations within the Columbia River estuary, at least for terns.

Historical documents are ambiguous regarding the presence/absence and distribution of pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) in eastern Washington State. Paleozoological (archaeological and paleontological) data indicate pronghorn were present there during most of the last 10,000 years, and available samples imply the boundaries of pronghorn distribution coincided with the modern distribution of shrub-steppe habitats. There is no evidence of temporal fluctuation in the abundance of pronghorn that cannot be explained by sampling error. Pronghorn were abundant relative to wapiti (Cervus elaphus) at the mouth of the Snake River but rare near the Washington–Idaho border. Pronghorn were never abundant relative to other ungulates, but were occasionally sufficiently numerous to form herds that were taken communally by groups of prehistoric hunters. Pronghorn were present but rare in the nineteenth century and did not persist into the twentieth century.

Many former Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana) woodland and savanna stands in the coastal Pacific Northwest have been invaded by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) during the past century as a result of fire suppression. Douglas-fir overtop and suppress the shade-intolerant oak, causing its eventual mortality. Removal of Douglas-fir is necessary for restoration of these oak ecosystems, but such action will influence belowground and near-ground conditions, affecting residual trees and understory communities. In a three-year study on a glacial outwash soil near Olympia, Washington, we compared soil and microclimate conditions near overtopped and released oak trees to determine how soil water content (SWC), throughfall, soil and air temperature, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) are affected when oak is released from overtopping Douglas-fir. In each year, volumetric SWC near all trees declined from ~0.25 m³ m⁻³ to ~0.10 m³ m⁻³ during the growing season, but this decline was delayed approximately one month in the released condition. Additionally, minimum SWC during late summer was 0.02 to 0.03 m³ m⁻³ greater near released trees than near overtopped trees. The understory in the released condition consumed more soil water than that in the overtopped condition, but only in the first year after release. During light rain events from May through July, throughfall was 170% greater in the released condition than in the overtopped condition. Release from Douglas-fir increased soil temperature, maximum air temperature, and maximum VPD. Release of oak trees from overtopping Douglas-fir reduced early- to mid-summer competition for soil water, which will likely benefit the formerly suppressed oak trees.

Internal Transcribed Spacer - Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (ITS-RFLP) and sequencing techniques were used to compare similarity of fungi decomposing roots of Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce), Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine), Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine), Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir), and Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock). Fungal DNA from hyphae growing on coarse roots, cultures isolated from roots, herbarium specimens, culture collections, and field collected samples was extracted, amplified, and digested with endonucleases. Over two hundred ITS-RFLP patterns from fungal samples were separated. Linearly increasing ITS-RFLP sampling intensity curves indicate high total genetic diversity of fungi. Nei and Li similarity index analysis showed similarities of fungi on roots as measured by ITS-RFLP patterns samples ranged from 0 to 1 (i.e., 0% to 100% similar) depending upon the root species, location, and harvest stand age. Sequences were obtained for the most common ITS-RFLP patterns. Results indicate that zygomycete fungi were most prominent in decomposing woody conifer roots and that the similarity of fungi was low between tree species and locations.

The 2000 Bitterroot wildfires in Montana burned 124,250 ha of forest and rangelands on the Bitterroot National Forest. Because spotted knapweed (Centaurea biebersteinii DC) is common on the Bitterroot National Forest, there is a high potential of expanded knapweed populations following the wildfires. A stratified random sample was used to study forest vegetation development following the wildfires. A total of 283 plots in 71 stands were measured three times during the 5-year period after burning. Knapweed occurred on 19.4% of plots at 1 or 2 years postfire, 26.1% at 3 years, and 37.1% at 5 years. Occurrence at 5 years was higher on Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco] habitat types (56.0%) than on subalpine fir [Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.] habitat types (9.6%). Initially after the fire, occurrence and cover of knapweed were inversely correlated with forest floor burn severity; however, the rate of increase over time was higher at higher burn severities. Knapweed cover declined over time on plots with low burn severity and increased over time on plots with high burn severity. Knapweed was tallest on plots where it first occurred at year 3 and shortest where it first occurred at year 5. Collectively, these results suggest that vegetation recovery is important for reducing knapweed populations, especially on Douglas-fir habitat types.

We examined the efficiency of sedating juvenile steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss with 12.5, 25, or 50 mg/l clove oil concentration as it would relate to in situ sampling and marking. We compared handling effort and processing time among dosages for fish sedated with clove oil, implanted with a 23-mm passive integrated transponder (PIT) tag, weighed, measured, and fin clipped. In addition, we compared anesthesia induction, recovery, and initial and delayed mortality among dosages for fish sedated with clove oil. Fish reached each anesthesia induction stage faster as clove oil concentration increased. Handling effort was significantly more difficult for individuals anesthetized in the 12.5 mg/l clove oil concentration compared to 25 or 50 mg/l. Handling effort did not differ between fish sedated with 25 or 50 mg/l. Handling time was significantly longer for fish anesthetized with 12.5 or 25 mg/l clove oil concentrations compared to 50 mg/l. Handling time did not differ between fish anesthetized with 12.5 or 25 mg/l. Processed fish (i.e. PIT tagged, weighed, measured, fin clipped) recovered significantly quicker when anesthetized with 12.5 mg/l clove oil concentration followed by 25 and 50 mg/l. Time to each anesthesia recovery stage did not differ between processed fish and controls. We observed no initial post-tagging mortality. Though we observed delayed mortality, it was low and did not significantly differ among clove oil concentrations. Our results support the use of clove oil as a fish anesthetic, and 50 mg/l was an effective concentration when used for PIT tagging juvenile steelhead.

Bats frequently use basal hollows in trees to gain access to interior roost sites but it has been challenging to verify which species do so because it is difficult to capture bats or identify bats using acoustic methods at these locations. We employed noninvasive genetic sampling of guano to identify the species of bats that use basal hollows in redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) trees in coastal northern California. Guano was collected using screen traps suspended within the hollows of trees in the northern and central range of the redwood, in Del Norte and Mendocino County, California, respectively. A representative sample of 231 guano pellets from 104 trees was selected for analysis; 149 pellets from 63 trees amplified sufficiently for genetic sequencing. Species identification is possible for 8 of the 11 species that were assumed to occur in the study area, based on previous studies using two 190 bp regions of the 16S ribosomal subunit gene. Seven distinct species, subspecies or species groups were identified; all 7 were represented from samples in the northern study area whereas only 5 of these occurred within the central study area. The long-legged bat (Myotis volans) was the most frequent taxa identified. Genetic sampling to identify the species using roosts will be an important contribution to the conservation of bats. This method is noninvasive and appears more efficient than other methods, such as following radio-marked bats to basal hollows or attempting to capture bats as they enter or leave a hollow. New laboratory developments in this field, such as microarrays, when combined with sequencing, will open up domains of research on individual species and species composition at various temporal and geographic scales.

Fern-leaf goldthread (Coptis aspleniifolia), a coastal rainforest plant, has variable sex expression, flowering commonly as males, but also as protandrous and protogynous hermaphrodites. Ramets often change sex expression between years; ramets that produced fruit in one year were usually male or sterile the next year. The most common flower visitors were dance flies. Seeds experimentally dispersed by displacement of open follicles or fruiting scapes usually traveled less than 1 m. Experiments to determine resource- or pollen-limitation of fruit and seed set are desirable.

Between May and July 2002, we conducted a field study to investigate possible environmental factors influencing surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) egg mortality at eight beaches on the southern Strait of Georgia, British Columbia (B.C.), Canada. Egg mortality was variable, but was positively correlated to air temperature and increased in June and July when maximum temperature was approximately 30°C. In June 2003, we conducted a preliminary laboratory study to investigate the effects of desiccation on surf smelt egg mortality. Eggs were randomly placed into four relative humidity (RH) groups: dry (62% RH), moist (80% RH), wet (93% RH) and submerged (100% RH). All eggs in the dry and moist group died by the end of the experiment. Mortality of eggs in the wet and submerged groups was not significantly different (P<0.05). Eggs in the wet group reached the eyed stage and hatched significantly faster (P<0.05) than those in the submerged group. Results suggested a threshold RH requirement of 80 – 93% for successful development and hatching of surf smelt embryos. Moisture and temperature interact to condition RH in the intertidal zone. Shade vegetation, which can cool air temperature in the supralittoral zone, may be important for some populations of surf smelt. Further investigations are required to confirm the findings.