Assessing habitat naturalness belongs to the most current issues in conservation biology. It has been recognized that plants are able to indicate the naturalness of their habitat. Thus, species may be given relative naturalness indicator values (i.e. scores on an ordinal scale), reflecting their different tolerances against habitat degradation. In the present study, our first goal was to test whether relative naturalness indicator values are able to reveal known differences in naturalness levels. Our second purpose was to compare four different methodological approaches in order to identify which is the most reliable when analyzing habitat naturalness. We compared near-natural and degraded plots on the bases of (1) unweighted plot means, (2) plot medians, (3) unweighted naturalness indicator value populations, and (4) frequency-weighted naturalness indicator value populations. We found that relative naturalness indicator values performed well in differentiating among near-natural and degraded vegetation. Unweighted mean indicator values were the most reliable, but frequency-weighted indicator value populations were nearly as efficient as unweighted means. We conclude that relative naturalness indicator values provide a simple but reliable tool for estimating habitat deterioration.

An approach has been adopted in order to select the most representative and predictive indicators as minimum data set (MDS) for the assessment of rangeland soil quality. Large data sets were employed for the high hill rangeland in the Saral region, Kurdistan province, west of Iran. The correlations between soil properties and plant growth in various landscape units were investigated and interpreted based on statistical analyses. Multivariate statistical techniques were used to determine the minimum set of indicators among chemical and physical variables, as well as soil surface indices of Landscape Function Analyses (LFA) approach that account for at least 70% of the variability in the whole data set of aboveground plant biomass production among land units. The MDS was selected for its ability to predict soil productivity, as site potential of a long-term rangeland exclosure. The efficacy of the chosen MDS was evaluated by performing multivariate regressions of the MDS against each of the plant growth characteristics (P ≤ 0.05). These dependent characteristics included total yield, herbaceous plant production, and utilizable forage. Variations in the plant response variables were best predicted by Nutrient cycling index, Land organization index, and total nitrogen illustrating that plant variables were more sensitive to the chemical rather than the physical properties of the soil.

Bark beetle outbreaks and tree mortality patterns should be better understood to control outbreak impacts. We investigated landscape-level patterns of Norway spruce mortality caused by Ips typographus outbreaks across three periods from 1999–2012 in Tatra National Park (Poland) using high-resolution aerial orthophotos and satellite imagery. Shifts in tree mortality related to elevation, slope, and solar equinox radiation were analyzed with ANOVAs (Tukey's HSD tests). Boosted regression trees were employed to assess the forecasting effectiveness of these variables related to mortality period. Spruce mortality severity increased significantly across time in both managed and unmanaged forests. Management activities did not effectively reduce spruce mortality severity. Mortality severity increased significantly at higher elevations over time, while slope and radiation trends varied. Elevation and radiation were the best forecasters of mortality period, exhibiting moderate predictive ability. Beetle-induced spruce mortality increased significantly in Tatra National Park from 1999–2012, particularly at high elevations. Management strategies aimed at minimizing spruce mortality have been ineffective.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of nitrogen fertilizer industry pollution on epiphytic lichen communities. The study plots are located in Scots pine Pinus sylvestris stands at different distances (up to 12 km) to the northeast and southwest of the nitrogen fertilizer producer plant in central Lithuania. The stands were semi-mature and mature and growing on sandy sites of the Vaccinio-myrtillosa site type. Species richness, composition and index of atmospheric purity (IAP) were assessed at each site. Species diversity was calculated by grouping species by their ecological values for eutrophication. Species frequency was calculated according to lichen life strategies (growth forms, photobionts, reproductive strategies). Twenty lichens species were recorded in the surrounding of the pollution source. An increase in species richness and diversity was found with increasing the distance up to 10 km from the plant. Based on IAP values three zones (< 5, 5–10, > 10 km) with different air pollution were distinguished. The increase in species richness was related to the increase in eutrophication-tolerating species along with sensitive to pollution species. The lichen diversity value of nitrophytic species (LDV_nitro) increased with increasing distance from the pollution source. Foliose and fruticose growth forms were both positively significantly related with the distance, being common in the plots with lower level of pollution. Crustose lichens are less sensitive to this factor and the prevalence of crustose thalli was found in the nearest vicinity to the plant.

Even though Alliaria petiolata is a globally important invasive plant, for Europe it is a native humble understory species. I studied the population characteristics of A. petiolata in its native range (NE Slovenia) by evaluating its demographic structure (e.g. population size, density, plant fruit production) and herbivory damage in different habitats (forest understorey, forest edge, ruderal site). Moreover I tested the allelopathic potential of fresh A. petiolata leaves and roots on garden cress Lepidium sativum germination and seedling development. I performed bioassays with aqueous extracts and took a first step toward testing the presence of volatile potentially allelopathic compounds. The results showed that A. petiolata populations can become established at disturbed sites, even such without a tree canopy, but dense stands can be found only at disturbed forest edges. The bioassays confirmed the presence of A. petiolata aqueous and volatile allelochemicals in leaves and roots. Germination was suppressed more by volatiles, showing that allelopathy can act via volatile compounds and further suggesting their antifungal effects. The results allow predicting that the success of A. petiolata invasion in a non-native range might rely on its variable habitat tolerance (not being a strict ruderal species) and allelopathy.

The tetraploid (2n = 32) Aconitum sect. Aconitum in the Eastern Carpathians, Southern Carpathians and Apušeni Mts. is represented by high-mountain A. bucovinese, A. firmum subsp. fissurae and their putative taxonomic hybrid A. ×nanum. The aim of the paper was to reveal which delimiting system: taxonomic vs. geographic-population better explains genetic variability (ISSR — Inter Simple Sequence Repeats) of the Aconitum individuals in the Eastern/Southern Carpathians. Twenty nine plants sampled in five populations within entire range of taxa distribution were assigned to genetic groups according to a Bayesian STRUCTURE analysis, neighbour-net classification (NN), and nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination (NMDS). Three taxa were distributed in four (NN, NMDS) or two (STRUCTURE) genetic groups, and the partitioning of genetic variation with analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed the highest percentage of variation attributed to the four ISSR genetic groups (22.6%), then to the two STRUCTURE groups (18.9%) and three taxa (15.6%, all P < 0.001), and finally to the three geographic regions (6.5%, P = 0.013). Genetic groups harbored specimens from distant regions: A. f. subsp. fissurae had similar genetic profiles in the Southern Carpathians and Apušeni Mts. (100% support), and some specimens of A. bucovinense had genetic links with A. f. subsp. fissurae. The hybrid species A. ×nanum was genetically specific. We concluded that (i) genetic links between nowadays distantly located populations could have originated in the effect of ancient contacts and hybridization, (ii) probably in the Carpathians two ancient genetic centers of the A. sect. Aconitum existed and (iii) high genetic specificity of the hybrid species A. ×nanum deserves further studies.

Malaxis monophyllos is a rare orchid with a fragmented boreal-montane distribution in Europe where it is associated with both natural swampy and anthropogenic habitats. We employed extensive sampling of M. monophyllos populations from different habitat types, over its whole European geographic range, to examine its genetic diversity patterns and phylogeographic structure using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). Our results revealed the relatively low genetic diversity of M. monophyllos, with the effect of small population sizes and inbreeding as the driving forces operating within the European part of its range. The statistically highest values of genetic diversity were found in populations from the boreal region (average: percentage of polymorphic loci PPL₃ = 21.6%, Nei's gene diversity H_j3 = 0.144, the rarity index DW₃ = 1.34), while populations from mountainous regions were characterised by a reduced level of genetic diversity (e.g. an average for Alpine populations: PPL₃ = 18.1%, H_j3 = 0.121, DW₃ = 0.84) in comparison to boreal ones. Our results revealed that the newly established anthropogenic populations in the Polish uplands were probably founded from numerous external sources and should be considered a significant source of the species' genetic diversity. We also confirmed the low genetic differentiation among M. monophyllos populations (F_ST = 0.074), with the lack of distinguishable genetic clusters, that supports results about the multidirectional gene flow between M. monophyllos populations in Europe, and directed conservation efforts on conserving all suitable for this species habitats.

This study aims to gain insights into the allelopathic effects (by using leaf extracts) of the notorious invasive Solidago canadensis L. on seed germination of the associated Pterocypsela laciniata (Houtt.) C. Shih under different nitrogen (N) forms added: inorganic (NO₃^--N and NH₄ -N), organic (urea-N), and mixed N (a mixture of the three N forms at 1:1:1 ratio). Among the two used concentrations of S. canadensis leaf extracts the higher exhibited inhibitory allelopathic effects on seedling height and biomass, germination potential, germination index, and vigor index of P. laciniata. N demonstrated positive effects on seed germination of P. laciniata. The effects of mixed and organic N on the seedling biomass of P. laciniata were more pronounced than those of inorganic N and control treatment. The vigor index of P. laciniata under mixed N was significantly higher than those under single N form and control treatment. Thus, organic and mixed N showed higher ecological effects on seed germination of P. laciniata than inorganic and single N form. All N forms could alleviate the inhibitory allelopathic effects of S. canadensis on seed germination of P. laciniata. Overall, the inhibitory allelopathic impact of S. canadensis on seed germination of native species may be attenuated under increased and diverse N deposition, thus it could prevent its further invasion.

We determined the current potential distribution of Artemisia sieberi and A. aucheri, two important widespread rangeland shrub species in Iran, using bioclimatic variables with and without the addition of elevation (E) to the MaxEnt model. The impact of climate change on the habitat suitability of the Artemisia species was modeled for mid century under the projected climate change of GFDL-ESM2G (RCP2.6) model, a warmer and slightly wetter condition, and CCSM4 (RCP4.5) model, a warmer and drier condition. The results showed that annual precipitation (AP) and temperature annual range (TAR) were the most important drivers of A. aucheri distribution at a regional scale. With the addition of E to the model, we found that E and AP were the most significant factors in determining the habitat suitability of this species. The most significant factors influencing A. sieberi distribution were AP and annual mean temperature (AMT). E was not identified as the important variable influencing A. sieberi distribution when was added to the model in spite of its high correlation to AMT (|r| > 0.8), while AP was the most important, indicating that A. sieberi is less dependent on elevation than A. aucheri. A. aucheri is regarded as a high elevation species (E > 2500 m) which can be distributed in colder and wetter areas as compared to A. sieberi, a mid-elevation species (E < 2500 m). The projected climate change using both models has a much more impact on A. aucheri, potentially driving more losses and fewer gains in climatically suitable habitat of this species as compared to A. sieberi suggesting the adaptation of the later to a wider range of climatic conditions than A. aucheri. The results of the current and future distribution modeling of the Artemisia species is significant in managing susceptible habitats of these species for climate change and for habitat restoration.

Environmental toxicants such as insecticides are able to provoke epigenetic alterations which can be inherited to future generations. The aim of the current study was to assess whether the insecticide Trebon 10F (containing the active ingredient etofenprox) causes multigenerational and/or transgenerational effects on the egg traits of the collembolan Folsomia candida. The parent generation was kept in soil treated with three concentrations of the insecticide. The hatched offspring from each treatment were divided into two groups and were treated in the same manner as their parents (multigenerational effect), or remained untreated (transgenerational effect). The parents reacted with smaller eggs to the insecticide in a concentration dependent manner. Both multigenerational and transgenerational effects were detected in the offspring generations. While neither the number of eggs nor the ratios of the egg diameters (shortest/longest diameter) changed, the egg size increased as the Trebon 10F concentration increased. This is an indication that parents living under insecticide stress transmit this information to their offspring, who react with higher quality egg production. Such alterations in egg traits may have important consequences on the F. candida population dynamic.

Patrolling behavior plays an important role in resource defense and in shaping social interactions in territorial species. However, it is not clear whether and how resource deterioration affects patrolling and interactions between territorial males. We addressed this issue by studying the territorial patrolling of damselfly Calopteryx splendens males, which use riverine vegetation patches composed of floating rafts of Potamogeton natans as territories. Males can hold single territories established on one vegetation patch (solitary residents) or hold adjacent territories established on shared vegetation patch (contiguous residents). The study predicted that solitary males engage more in patrolling than contiguous residents and that patrolling intensity is proportional to patch quality. Two types of semi-natural vegetation patches were sunk: of high and low quality measured on the basis of the patch size (range 2–5 m²) and its attractiveness to damselflies (measured as number of residents, non-territorial males and contests observed at a given patch). Changes in number of patrolling flights were monitored for solitary and two contiguous residents: first which hold territory situated closer to the patch centre and secondary holding territory nearer to the edge of a patch. Results indicated that solitary residents patrolled more often than either of the two contiguous residents. Habitat deterioration significantly reduced the patrolling intensity of both single and first contiguous resident, however, their patrolling activity was not resumed at the same intensity after the original patch had been restored. The secondary resident of a contiguous pair did not respond to habitat deterioration, but increased its patrolling activity following restoration. Patch quality was found to have no impact on patrolling, which implies that social context can be more important in predicting changes in patrolling behavior in response to resource deterioration.

To understand the nutrient absorption and adaptability of plant species that initially colonize mounds and the influences of the plateau zokor on the diversity of the plant community after 4 years' period, a series of experiments was conducted in an alpine meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The contents of C and N and the flow of N in pioneer species were measured and tracked using the ¹⁵N isotope tracer method, and the species diversity on 4-year-old mounds was investigated. The results showed that (1) plateau zokors could influence the plant species on the mounds by creating gaps in the grassland; (2) Elymus nutans and Elsholtzia feddei, with high rates and efficiencies of nutrient absorption and transportation, were more competitive on the newly formed mounds than other species; (3) Elymus nutans played a dominant role in the plant community of the mounds; and (4) plateau zokors did not change the plant diversity after 4 years' period. These findings indicated that species colonizing the mounds experienced a process of competition when gaps were created by the rodents, that species with greater capabilities for resource acquisition and utilization had stronger competitiveness and vice versa, and that after a few years, the plant diversity on the mounds was almost similar to that of the undisturbed grassland.

The small mammal species were investigated in the urbanized environment of Nitra city (Slovakia) in a multiscale-approach: at habitat level and at landscape level (urban-rural gradient). Continuous comprehensive rodent samplings from 2012 to 2015 were conducted in ten study sites, classified into three urban zones (landscape level). The total effort comprised 1,250 specimens of 13 species (Microtus arvalis, Apodemus sylvaticus, A. flavicollis, A. uralensis, Clethrionomys (Myodes) glareolus, M. subterraneus, Micromys minutes, Mus spicilegus, M. musculus, Crocidura suaveolens, C. leucodon, Sorex araneus, S. minutus) gathered in 14950 trapxnights. Environmental variables (habitat level) at each site were processed in the Geographical Information System as a proportion of landscape units around the trapping line and by a phytosociological survey. At the habitat level, we found a relationship between the landscape habitat structure and each species of small mammals. Diversity, species richness and relative abundance of small mammals decreased with the density of the built-up area. At landscape level, urban zones had a significant influence on species diversity, richness and relative abundance of small mammal populations. On the other hand, the presence of small mammal species precisely determined the urban zones, where we identified seven indicative species.

Saproxylic beetles are essential for the proper functioning of forest ecosystems. However, intensive forest management has led to the disappearance of suitable microhabitats of many species associated with dead wood. Cucujus cinnaberinus is an endangered saproxylic beetle which develops under the bark of dead wood. The species usually occurs in protected areas, however, some populations inhabit long-term managed forests in Central Europe. In this study, we analyzed the effect of nine silviculture-related and decay-related factors on the C. cinnaberinus microhabitat selection in managed forests. We found that potential sun exposure, bark thickness, dead wood moisture and the hardness of dead wood have a significant effect on the C. cinnaberinus microhabitat selection. The species prefers sun-exposed dead wood with thicker bark at an intermediate stage of decay with undecomposed xylem, but avoids completely dry pieces. Furthermore, we found no confirmation of a direct connection between dead wood diameter and the occurrence of C. cinnaberinus. We stressed that logging residues or stumps are mostly unsuitable for C. cinnaberinus development.