New knowledge in science is built on previous knowledge. Thus, the primary purpose of preserving scientific knowledge is that future scientists will be able collate said knowledge years from now to answer questions not yet asked. Secondarily, if preserved, datasets associated with published research papers could be compared to or combined with datasets collected by future scientists. This will lessen the need to repeat research and will allow examination of what and how environments, and communities and populations of living organisms have changed over time. My concerns regarding the preservation of scientific knowledge—particularly published papers—for use by future researchers are not just that such knowledge continues to exist for a few generations of scientists, but that it survives in perpetuity in accessible formats. Loss of publications containing interpretations based on data and previous knowledge is as critical if not more so than just the loss of data to the continuity of scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, knowledge and datasets are not synonymous; however, they are integrally linked because it takes some of one to produce the other. Reconstructing an event or establishing the history of some unit of knowledge can be extraordinarily labor- and time-intensive in the print world, but it is possible. In the digital world, we can use search engines to hasten the process; however, this just lulls us into a false sense of security. Whereas properly archived acid-free paper has the potential of lasting forever, digital media lacks that potential. Material “stored” on an Internet website may seem permanent, but that permanence is merely an illusion. Knowledge on the Internet is only as secure as there are people, scientific societies, corporations or government agencies willing to maintain websites and pay for the cost of the website presence. Scientists must demand of scientific societies and publishers of their journals that not only should published papers be archived in perpetuity, but that datasets used to produce those manuscripts also be archived in perpetuity in such a manner that other scientists can understand what data are present. The perpetual, not just short-term, future of scientists' ability to access, collate and rethink the determined knowledge of past scientists is dependent on the actions of members of scientific societies to convince the general public, universities, corporations and government agencies that it is essential to guard against the loss of knowledge that otherwise will have to be rediscovered.

Macrofungi from two old-growth prairie grove remnants in the Midwestern United States (Brownfield and Trelease Woods, Champaign Co., IL ) were surveyed over two summer and fall fruiting periods. Communities of Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Myxomycetes were sampled and compared using multivariate statistical analyses. Standard estimations of species richness were calculated for comparison with other studies of fungal diversity. Environmental factors (rainfall, humidity, air temperature and soil temperature at 10 cm depth) as well as leaf litter composition, and woody plant communities were surveyed to assess their impact on fungal communities. Fungal community structure was found to differ significantly both between and within Brownfield and Trelease Woods. Communities of terrestrial macrofungi were determined to be strongly influenced by seasonality, with soil temperature at 10 cm depth showing the strongest correlation to changes in community composition. Brownfield and Trelease Woods, formerly part of a contiguous prairie grove with likely a single fungal community, are shown to have developed significantly different fungal communities over a period of separation of more than 120 y.

The Federally threatened Eastern Prairie Fringed Orchid, Platanthera leucophaea (Nutt.) Lindley (Orchidaceae), has experienced long-term decline largely due to habitat loss and degradation. Although this species has been propagated from seed in the laboratory, achieving seedling survival ex vitro has been problematic, forcing conservationists to sow seeds directly into field sites in an attempt to generate seedlings. Given that the mycorrhizal fungi needed for germination in situ have sporadic distributions, sowing seeds of this threatened species indiscriminately is not a preferable option. Thus, locating fungal “hotspots” using seed baits, and amending soil with fungi may have practical merit. In anticipation of the latter possibility, we provide a comprehensive list of the 75 mycorrhizal fungi isolated from P. leucophaea protocorms, seedlings and mature plants during the past 10 y from sites in Illinois and Michigan, including newly acquired strains from five additional sites in Illinois. Collectively, 66 of the 75 isolates (88%) were assignable to the anamorphic form-genus Ceratorhiza, including all of the fungi recovered from the five additional sites. This further supports the hypothesis that P. leucophaea relies primarily on Ceratorhiza to fulfill its initial and long-term mycotrophic needs. Although Ceratorhiza appears to be an ubiquitous associate of P. leucophaea, it should not be assumed that specific strains of this genus are equally widespread. Thus, we advocate that the fungi used in conservation should be limited to strains acquired from the same or nearby populations.

Garlic mustard is an invasive Eurasian biennial that has rapidly spread throughout the United States. In Southwestern Ohio, many garlic mustard populations are infected with Erysiphe cruciferarum, a causal agent of powdery mildew disease in Brassicaceous plants. We examined the regional distribution of E. cruciferarum on garlic mustard and determined the potential host range of E. cruciferarum on several native Brassicaceous species and selected Brassicaceous crop varieties. A survey of 19 natural areas in western Ohio revealed that populations of garlic mustard with high incidences of powdery mildew were largely centered in Montgomery and Greene Counties in Ohio, with disease incidence decreasing away from Dayton, Ohio. Sampling locations that were on level or southeast facing slopes had significantly higher disease incidences than those on northwest or southwest facing slopes. Five native spring ephemeral species, including four Cardamine species and one Arabis species, showed no obvious signs of E. cruciferarum infection in the field, but each became mildly to moderately infected when subjected to inoculum under greenhouse conditions. Of 12 Brassicaceous crop varieties tested, only one cultivar, Savanna Mustard (Brassica juncea), became infected with powdery mildew in the greenhouse. Results from the greenhouse study show that under optimal conditions, some native spring mustard species can become infected with the same powdery mildew that infects garlic mustard, but they appear to phenologically escape from the disease in the field. Most Brassicaceous crop plants appear to be resistant, which may be due to breeding for powdery mildew resistance. Powdery mildew disease is prevalent at many sites in the field in Ohio and may impact garlic mustard with little realized risk for native and cultivated Brassicaceous species.

Scientists are beginning to have a firm grasp on the dramatic influence invasive earthworms can have on nutrient cycling in northern hardwood forests, yet a concrete understanding of their effects on plant communities is still needed. Towards this effort, we examined both the above and belowground plant communities, along with soil organic matter, pH, texture and light in Arnot Forest located in south central New York. Two transects were aligned parallel to previously defined gradients of earthworm density and were sampled in the spring and summer of 2008. We found plots codominated by multiple earthworm species decreased belowground seed abundance and species richness. Aboveground plant cover and diversity along with soil organic matter was lower along the transect with multiple earthworm species. In addition, we found earthworm density increased with soil pH, but did not detect relationships with soil texture or light intensity. Our results were consistent with previous findings of earthworms negatively affecting aboveground plant communities and soil organic matter, and increasing pH. Our study demonstrates the potential for exotic earthworms to dramatically alter forest soil seed banks; however, future research is needed to investigate complexities of earthworm community dynamics (e.g., number and life form of earthworm species) and to tease apart mechanisms responsible for changes in the belowground plant community.

Information about invasive species is often based primarily on anecdotal evidence, indicating the need for further information. Ranunculus ficaria is an ephemeral riparian plant species that is presumed invasive in the United States, despite the lack of any published information on its impacts. Mechanisms by which R. ficaria may affect native plant species include competition and allelopathy. We examined if R. ficaria negatively affected the growth and reproduction of the native Impatiens capensis and, if so, whether it is by allelopathy, nutrient competition or some combination thereof. We performed a fully-factorial field experiment, manipulating the presence of R. ficaria, nutrients and allelopathy (with the use of activated carbon). The presence of R. ficaria tended to negatively affect life span of I. capensis. In the absence of carbon, R. ficaria significantly decreased seed production, illustrating the negative impact of R. ficaria. In the presence of carbon, there was no effect of R. ficaria, suggesting that carbon may have ameliorated the negative allelopathic effect of R. ficaria. Nutrient competition did not show strong effects. Despite its widespread identification as an invasive species, this is the first study to demonstrate the negative impact of R. ficaria on a native species and the possible role of allelopathy in its success. Further, the negative impacts of this ephemeral species persist well beyond its early growing season, which calls into question previous widespread assumptions about R. ficaria exerting effects primarily on other ephemeral species.

Simulium larvae perform two behaviors in response to physical contact with invertebrate predators: curling and drifting. Curling involves the attachment of a silk thread to the substrate (in preparation for drifting), and drifting allows an individual to quickly leave the vicinity of the predator. The purpose of this study is to determine if larval black flies (Simulium vittatum s. s.) from two field sites respond to chemical stimuli from damaged conspecifics in a manner consistent with responses to predator contact. In experiment 1, we observed the responses of individual S. vittatum to chemicals from damaged members of their own population (Houghton Creek or Sixtown Creek). In experiment 2, we examined larval responses to chemicals from damaged individuals from both sites in order to determine if larvae adjusted their responses based on the source of the stimulus. The results of experiment 1 show that larvae from each population are significantly more likely to engage ‘curling’ when exposed to damaged conspecifics versus a control. In addition, the duration of the curling behavior was significantly longer when exposed to chemicals from damaged conspecifics compared to a control. The results of experiment 2 demonstrate that individual larvae are more likely to curl when exposed to damaged conspecifics as compared to a control, regardless of the source population of the stimulus donors. We again found that the duration of the curling behavior was significantly longer when exposed to the damaged conspecifics versus the control with no significant difference in the responses to the different source populations. These results offer preliminary evidence to suggest that larval S. vittatum are able to detect and respond to chemicals associated with predation in a natural setting and that there does not appear to be population differences with regard to the nature of the response or the stimulus.

Robber fly diversity, seasonal activity and habitat associations were studied in prairie and forest habitats in west-central Illinois from May to Oct. 2005. The greatest numbers of individuals and species were collected in recently burned prairie and forest habitats, although richness in the recently burned prairie was lower than expected based on rarefaction. Six of the eight most abundant species had primarily mid-season or earlier flight activity patterns; the other two species were mid- to late or late season fliers. There was significant variation in robber fly species composition among habitats. Forest habitats had greater within-habitat variation in species composition than did prairie habitats. Three indicator species (Cerotainia macrocera Say, Nerax aestuans (L.) and Promachus hinei Bromley) were found, all for prairie habitats. Two species (Ommatius ouachitensis Bullington & Lavigne and P. hinei) showed significant sex-related variation in habitat associations. These results show that significant variation in robber fly assemblages can occur over relatively small geographic areas and that fire may affect robber fly abundance and diversity.

Oak savannas in the Midwestern United States are rare ecosystems heavily altered by human activity. Common land management practices, like prescribed fire can control invasive species and restore native plants, but few studies have examined the impacts of such practices on oak savanna invertebrate communities. We examined impacts of prescribed fire on ant nesting ecology in the Oak Openings of NW Ohio. We measured ant use of natural nests and colonization of artificial nests in savannas to examine ant nest-site limitation and colonization. We collected 376 potential natural nests (362 acorns, 12 twigs and 2 other hollow nuts); 161 in burned sites and 215 in unburned sites. In burned sites, seven (or 4.34%) nests were occupied by ants and in unburned sites three (or 1.4%) were occupied, but nest occupation did not differ between burned and unburned areas. Overall 6.85% of artificial nests were occupied; 5.56% in burned and 7.59% in unburned areas, but again, the difference was not significant. Two pieces of evidence – ant use of artificial nest sites and negative correlations between natural nest occupation and natural nest availability – suggest that ants may be nest-site limited within the Oak Openings savannas. Ant richness and composition of ants found in natural nests was similar in burned and unburned areas; however, composition of ants in artificial nests tended to differ between habitats. These results suggest that burning did not impact frequency of nest occupation, or species composition of existing cavity-nesting ant colonies, but burning may alter colonization processes for cavity-nesting ants within savannas in the Oak Openings.

This study investigated effects of a prescribed burn on the small mammal community and vegetative cover in a tallgrass prairie remnant in east central Texas. Small mammals were live-trapped 8 mo before and 8 mo after a prescribed burn. Vegetation sampling confirmed drastic reduction of cover after fire in the grassland sections of the prairie. Relative abundances (captures/100 trapnights) of pygmy mice (Baiomys taylori) and cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) significantly decreased after the fire, whereas deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) significantly increased following fire. Cotton rat and pygmy mouse abundances were positively correlated with grassy litter and negatively correlated with bare ground, whereas deer mouse abundance was positively correlated with bare ground. Relative abundances of B. taylori, S. hispidus and P. maniculatus in burned sections returned to preburn levels in 8 mo. Hispid pocket mice (Chaetodipus hispidus) were not captured until after the prescribed burn. This is the first report of fire effects on this assemblage of Neotropical and Nearctic rodent species in the tallgrass blackland prairie ecosystem.

Livestock grazing and fire influence the composition of desert grassland communities, including their rodent populations. However, there have been few studies of the interactions between grazing and wildfire in arid grasslands of the southwestern United States. We trapped rodents and measured vegetation on grazed versus ungrazed plots before (2001) and following (2002–2007) an intense 15,000 ha wildfire in southeastern Arizona. The fire reduced grass canopy on grazed plots for 2 y and on ungrazed plots for 3 y. Some rodents in the family Cricetidae (genera Baiomys, Reithrodontomys and Sigmodon) were more abundant on ungrazed plots before the fire. Cricetidae as a whole declined following the fire and did not return to preburn levels until the sixth postfire year (2007). Nine of ten cricetid species contributed to this general pattern. By contrast, the abundant species of Heteromyidae (Chaetodipus hispidus, C. baileyi, Perognathus flavus) increased following the fire, especially on ungrazed plots. These results are consistent with a model predicting that fire-caused reductions in grass cover should favor Heteromyidae over Cricetidae. Fires elsewhere in the Southwest have had little impact on rodent populations, but these were smaller and cooler burns with relatively minor effects on vegetation. Future studies of large wildfires of varying intensities would further elucidate the generality of the model.

Peromyscus leucopus and Ochrotomys nuttalli, two small mammal species of similar life histories and body mass, exhibit a high degree of sociality and niche overlap. We investigated differences in diet preference (ingested energy, protein content and preference ranking) based on reported diets for each species in nature to better explain coexistence. Five food resources were provided to 20 adult individuals (10 male, 10 female) of each species for 10 consecutive days. Individuals were contained in separate mesocosm tanks. Dietary choices were acorns of Quercus nigra and Q. alba, seeds of Ligistrum sinense and Rhus typhina, and fruits of Cornus florida. Golden mice preferred fruits of C. florida and acorns of Q. nigra, and to a lesser extent acorns of Q. alba, whereas white-footed mice consumed acorns of both Q. nigra and Q. alba and fruits of C. florida in equal amounts. White-footed mice consumed significantly more energy per day than golden mice (2.38 and 1.48 Kcal • g live wt⁻¹, respectively). Thus, P. leucopus, considered a habitat generalist species, exhibited a wider dietary breadth and greater caloric intake than O. nuttalli, considered a habitat specialist species.

Limited information exists regarding summer resource selection of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in grassland regions of the Northern Great Plains. During summers 2005–2006, we analyzed habitat selection of adult female white-tailed deer in north-central South Dakota. We collected 1905 summer locations and used 21 and 30 home ranges during 2005 and 2006, respectively, to estimate habitat selection. Results indicated that selection occurred at the population (P < 0.001) and home range (P < 0.001) levels. Deer selected for Conservation Reserve Program grasslands and corn during both summers and shifted selection temporally within summer. Use of CRP grasslands occurred during early summer; 73.1 and 88.9% of locations in CRP were documented prior to 1 Jul. during 2005 and 2006, respectively. Conversely, selection for corn occurred during late summer; 86.0 and 68.4% of locations in corn were documented after 1 Jul. during 2005 and 2006, respectively. Additionally, deer selected for forested cover and rural development areas containing permanent water sources during extreme drought conditions during 2006. Deer likely selected for fields of CRP grasslands during early summer for cover and natural forages, such as clover (Trifolium sp.), prior to the period when agricultural crops become available. Drought conditions occurring in semiarid prairie grassland regions may reduce food and water availability and contribute to subsequent changes in deer habitat selection across the range of the species.

Estimating the size of fish prey requires the use of relationships between the size of non-digestible fish remains (recovered as prey in scats or digestive tracts) and fish length. The applicability of scales for estimating the size of fish prey eaten by river otters (Lontra canadensis) or other piscivores was evaluated by conducting a linear regression analysis of scale size and fish length for 22 species and six multi-species groups from the Red River of the North tributaries of eastern North Dakota. Analyses included six scale measurements, and separate models were constructed for lateral line and non-lateral line scales. Positive relationships existed between scale size and fish length in most (42 of 44) single species models, with lateral line scales (r² ranging 0.317–0.994) typically producing better relationships than non-lateral line scales (r² ranging 0.136–0.959). Body-scale relationships also existed when including multiple species in a model (r² ranging 0.471–0.984 and 0.305–0.953 for lateral line and non-lateral line scales, respectively). Scales, and particularly lateral line scales, are highly useful in estimating the size of fish prey, but there are limitations including: the lack of scales on some fish species, potential degradation in passage through the digestive system and the absence of lateral line scales from some prey remains.

The North American river otter (Lontra canadensis) is recovering from near extirpation throughout much of its range. Although reintroductions, trapping regulations and habitat improvements have led to the reestablishment of river otters in the Midwest, little is known about how their distribution is influenced by local- and landscape-scale habitat. We conducted river otter sign surveys from Jan. to Apr. in 2008 and 2009 in eastern Kansas to assess how local- and landscape-scale habitat factors affect river otter occupancy. We surveyed three to nine 400-m stretches of stream and reservoir shorelines for 110 sites and measured local-scale variables (e.g., stream order, land cover types) within a 100 m buffer of the survey site and landscape-scale variables (e.g., road density, land cover types) for Hydrological Unit Code 14 watersheds. We then used occupancy models that account for the probability of detection to estimate occupancy as a function of these covariates using Program PRESENCE. The best-fitting model indicated river otter occupancy increased with the proportion of woodland cover and decreased with the proportion of cropland and grassland cover at the local scale. Occupancy also increased with decreased shoreline diversity, waterbody density and stream density at the landscape scale. Occupancy was not affected by land cover or human disturbance at the landscape scale. Understanding the factors and scale important to river otter occurrence will be useful in identifying areas for management and continued restoration.

Conservation of terrestrial salamanders requires consideration for landscape-level features and processes; and, therefore, tools are needed to support planning at large spatial scales. We assessed terrestrial salamander distribution patterns using an existing salamander data set and two previously developed landscape-level spatial tools, a landscape classification (LC) model and flow accumulation (FLOW) model, both based on 100-m² pixels. The LC model assigned each pixel to one of eight categories defined by slope, aspect and landform. The FLOW model assigned each pixel to one of five categories based on the number of 100-m² cells that drained into a given cell. Salamander data had been collected in the Allegheny Mountains of West Virginia during 2001–2003 on 543 100-m² plots located along random transects. Using area-constrained searches we collected 1879 individuals of eleven species. Plethodon cinereus, Desmognathus ochrophaeus, D. monticola and D. fuscus represented 92.8% of all captures. All plots were georeferenced and associated with one of the LC and FLOW categories. Because of non-normally distributed data, we used a Friedman rank sum test to compare treatment means. Total captures (P < 0.001), total mass (P  =  0.001) and species richness (P  =  0.001) differed among LC categories and total captures (P  =  0.010), and species richness (P  =  0.007) differed among FLOW categories. Species diversity did not differ among LC or FLOW categories (P > 0.27 and 0.26, respectively). Body Mass Index (BMI; mass/snout-vent length) was calculated for the four most abundant species and differed (P < 0.05) among LC or FLOW categories for P. cinereus, D. ochrophaeus and D. fuscus for at least one sex-age class. In several cases, BMI was higher at sites with low total captures and mass. These results suggest that commonly available and easily derived tools such as LC and FLOW models may be valuable as landscape planning tools and warrant further exploration.

We tested the palatability of 12 species of anuran larvae that occur in eastern Texas using four common predators. Palatability was determined by offering larvae to predators and recording the behavior of the predator. We also tested for ontogenetic shifts in palatability in twelve species of anuran larvae. Incilius nebulifer, Anaxyrus woodhousii, Lithobates catesbeianus, L. clamitans and L. sphenocephalus all showed evidence of unpalatability in laboratory experiments. These noxious larval anurans also showed ontogenetic shifts in palatability to one or more predators by becoming more palatable throughout development. Predator tolerance to noxiousness also played a key role in predation trials. Bluegills were the least tolerant, followed by green sunfish and dragonfly larvae. Crayfish had the highest tolerance to noxiousness.

The Mississippi silverside (Menidia audens), now common throughout the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (TTW) in Mississippi, apparently invaded this highly modified system from the Tennessee River, concurrent with TTW construction (1972–1985). Subsequent decline in distribution and abundance of the native brook silverside (Labidesthes sicculus) led to speculation that dietary competition with M. audens might be occurring. Therefore, diet data from sympatric and allopatric collections of the two silversides at several sites in TTW were analyzed using multivariate statistics and null models to test for significant dietary differences, overlap and niche shifts potentially attributable to habitat alteration. Diet overlap between the two silversides at sites of co-occurrence was greater than expected under the null model. Moreover, intraspecific food habits did not differ between individuals occurring in sympatry and those occurring in allopatry for either silverside. Thus, significant portions of their diet overlapped and neither species has exhibited dietary shifts that would facilitate coexistence. The two species differed significantly along stream size and current velocity gradients, with M. audens preferring the larger, slower moving habitats of the waterway. Unlike L. sicculus, M. audens included the exotic daphnid Daphnia lumholtzi in its diet. Because M. audens capitalized on a wider variety of prey items in the modified TTW environment and because of their previous interactions in other systems, we conclude that the native silverside, L. sicculus, is likely to be replaced by M. audens in lentic TTW habitats.

We captured a free-ranging adult female little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) with a fractured humerus that was in an advanced stage of healing. Compared to seven other adult female little brown bats captured the same evening from the same colony, the body condition of the bat with the healing humerus was 5.4%–13.8% less than other colony members. Our observation suggests that even though free-ranging bats may survive the trauma associated with a broken wing bone, there may be latent effects on their ability to forage and maintain body condition. This may ultimately compromise their ability to build up sufficient energetic reserves to migrate and hibernate.