Forests in Indonesia are disappearing at an alarming rate, because the large population of poor rural people require land for agriculture. In Indonesia, forest fire is used to clear land and for protest, indirectly increasing opportunities for human-elephant interaction. Human-elephant conflict is a problem for elephant conservation and human wellbeing in all areas where elephants and humans compete for space, and is most severe in Asia. This paper presents a case study of poor rural people living near Way Kambas National Park, on the island of Sumatra. The park is valued for its critically endangered and endangered mega-fauna, but is a hotspot for both forest arson and human-elephant conflict. We describe the multifactorial conflict happening in the park, which involves arson, poaching, police brutality, and violation of elephants. Workshops with villagers and park stakeholders reveal villager-park interaction, and expose multiple levels of resentment and vicious retribution. Villagers resent the park for a multitude of reasons and take direct action, burning the park and killing elephants. We conclude that saving Way Kambas National Park will ultimately require construction of a barrier preventing human and elephant movement in and out of the park. However in the immediate term, successful conservation must understand and address villager-park conflict, respond to threats of arson, and help villagers protect farms from elephants.

Examining changes in plant species diversity after shifting cultivation and logging has taken place in a system can help generate an understanding of the differences in species' responses to these human disturbances. We established 17 plots (each 0.25 hm²) in young, middle-aged and old-growth forests (i.e. three recovery stages) in Bawangling and Diaoluoshan on Hainan Island, China, after shifting cultivation and selective logging had taken place. We divided each plot into four vertical communities. Changes in the species diversity of each plot (i.e. the overall community) and within the vertical communities were assessed across the three recovery stages. Results showed that, after shifting cultivation, species diversity increased across the three recovery stages for the overall community and for the four vertical communities. Species abundance decreased for the overall community but change was inconsistent for the four vertical communities. After selective logging, however, there was generally little change in species diversity and abundance across the three recovery stages, either overall or within the vertical communities. This suggests that patterns of species diversity between communities are different after shifting cultivation has occurred and when selective logging has taken place. Furthermore, Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling showed differences in species composition across the three stages in the four vertical communities after shifting cultivation, but no differences in species composition across the three stages after selective logging. We also divided species dissimilarity coefficients into two parts, showing changes in species composition and abundance between the vertical communities under canopies and the canopy communities. We found that after shifting cultivation the coefficients between young-aged and old-growth forests, and middle-aged and old-growth forests were more than 0.77, but that they did not differ after selective logging had occurred. This suggests that changes in species turnover is unpredictable after shifting cultivation, but predictable after selective logging.

Growing urbanization and the expansion of the agricultural frontier in tropical ecosystems have generated patchy landscapes composed of remnants of natural habitats and abandoned fields. This scenario offers an opportunity to develop urban reserves in order to preserve local fauna in expanding cities. We propose that if native animals are able to use these two habitat types, reserves composed of a mixture of natural habitats and abandoned fields would contain more diversity than reserves composed only of natural habitats. However, to be useful for conservation, these reserves must harbor specialized organisms that depend on natural habitats. To test this proposal, we focused on diurnal butterflies inhabiting an urban reserve located within the city of Puebla (Mexico), which contains relics of oak forests and abandoned fields. Butterfly assemblages were sampled and compared in the different habitat types of the reserve. The data were then pooled and analyzed for the reserve as a whole. These analyses discriminated between habitat generalist and forest specialist butterflies. Our results indicated that the different habitat types of the reserve harbor different forest specialist butterflies, which in turn enhanced the diversity of forest-dwelling butterflies at the landscape scale. This suggests that the inclusion of abandoned fields together with natural habitats in the design of urban protected areas could help to preserve at least part of the regional biodiversity.

The on-going destruction of old-growth forests puts tropical forest species under great pressure because of the resulting loss of habitat. An important biotic component of these forests are vascular epiphytes, which structurally depend on trees. In human-modified landscapes potential hosts may still be present, e.g. in the form of isolated remnant trees, small groups of planted trees, in patches of secondary forests, or in plantations. For this study, we assessed the potential of timber monocultures and secondary forest patches to function as refuges for vascular epiphytes. We studied epiphyte assemblages in teak and pine plantations and secondary forest patches of unknown age along a rainfall gradient (1100 – 4200 mm) at the Pacific coast of western Panama and also in a few oil palm plantations. Invariably, rainfall had the expected positive influence on epiphyte diversity and abundance. Individual-based rarefaction curves showed that species richness was significantly lower in timber and oil palm plantations compared to secondary forest patches, which in turn hosted less species-rich epiphyte assemblages than (cultivated and wild grown) pasture trees from the same study region. Our results suggest that the value of timber and oil palm plantations as refuges for vascular epiphytes in human-modified landscapes is limited. Secondary forest patches were more promising in that regard.

We studied the ability of Cycas micronesica roots to recognize the identity of competitor roots using pot culture. Pairs of seedlings were grown in single pots for 10.5 months, and morphological traits of the focal plant were determined when the non-focal plant was a half-sibling, a close relative from a mother 170 m away, a distant relative from a habitat 40 km away, or a different species (Cycas edentata) from Mindanao, Philippines. Most of the measured response traits exhibited similar trends and confirmed that C. micronesica plant roots were able to recognize the identity of competitors. For example, focal plants grown in pots with C. edentata competitors exhibited 66% increase in fine root dry weight, 54% increase in coralloid root dry weight, and 49% increase in total plant dry weight, compared to focal plants grown in competition with half-siblings. Our methods have shown that plot design in ex situ conservation and botanic garden settings would improve by positioning C. micronesica plants adjacent to non-relatives. Recruitment may improve within in situ conservation plots if managers distribute seeds away from the maternal parent so that emerging seedlings are not forced into immediate competition with half-siblings. These findings may be useful for designing more complex experiments to quantify the influence of these plastic root responses on plant nutrient status and physiology.

In the western part of the Arabian/Persian Gulf, coastal habitats such as intertidal wetlands and mangroves are scarce and poorly studied. We conducted a rapid assessment survey of bird species richness and abundance at the Fuwairit khor lagoon in northern Qatar, using a line transect count scheme to collect data from six different generic habitat types, repeated during five consecutive days in late April 2013. To further analyze the ecological requirements of the surveyed bird assemblage per habitat type, we assigned ecological guild categories to each species and distinguished among migrants, local, and regional breeders. Mangrove and intertidal mudflats hosted the highest bird densities and the most distinctive assemblages, while the beach habitat had high concentrations of birds but relatively few species. In contrast to the wetland habitats, near-shore marine areas and dune habitats had very limited numbers of birds and a relatively depauperate species assemblage. Employing a habitat perspective in a quantitative bird survey method shows that birds are effective biodiversity indicators for a rapid survey of coastal features in a poorly-studied region of the Arabian/Persian Gulf.

Traditionally, arboreal rainforest mammals have been inventoried using ground-based survey techniques. However, given the success of camera traps in detecting secretive terrestrial rainforest mammals, camera trapping could also be a valuable tool for inventorying arboreal species. Here we assess, for the first time, the effectiveness of arboreal camera traps for inventorying arboreal rainforest mammals and compare the results with those from other methodologies. We do so in one of the world's most biodiverse conservation areas, the Manu Biosphere Reserve, Peru. We accumulated 1201 records of 24 arboreal mammal species. Eighteen species were detected by arboreal cameras, seven by diurnal line transects, six by nocturnal transects and eighteen through incidental observations. Six species were only detected using arboreal camera traps. Comparing arboreal camera traps with traditional ground-based techniques suggests camera traps are an effective tool for inventorying arboreal rainforest mammal communities. They also detected more cryptic species compared with other methodologies. Daily detection frequency patterns were found to differ between ground-based techniques and arboreal cameras. A cost-effort analysis indicated that despite greater upfront costs in equipment and training for arboreal camera trapping, when accounting for the additional survey hours required to provide similar numbers of records using ground-based methods, overall costs were similar. Our work demonstrates that arboreal camera trapping is likely to be a powerful technique for inventorying canopy mammals. The method has considerable potential for the study of charismatic and threatened arboreal mammal species that may otherwise remain largely unknown and could quietly disappear from the world's tropical forests.

The current demand for the preservation of natural resources and biodiversity has led to the need to adjust agricultural activities according to land-use capability. One method, the ‘Recommendations for Sustainable Land Use’, aims to overcome the limitations of the diverse systems currently available for evaluating agricultural land capability. The aim of this work was to critically analyze the application of this method for tropical soils (Plinthosols and Planosols). The evaluation occurred in two phases: the first with application of the method, and the second analyzing whether the land-use recommendations were appropriate for the edaphic and landscape characteristics. We found that corrections to the methodology are needed to facilitate comprehension by the user. The suitability of classes of Plinthosols and Planosols should be adjusted with the incorporation of indicators associated with the presence of plinthite, and the improvement of indicators related to salinity and sodicity. With these adjustments, the ‘Recommendations for Sustainable Land Use’ method will be an important tool for the conservation of environmental resources such as soil and water.

Native bee community diversity is known to vary temporally in the Neotropics, but little research has been done to quantify the extent of this variation. We studied monthly variation in native bee diversity in tropical semi-deciduous forest on the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, over a twelve-month period in 2007. Hurricane Dean traversed the study area in August of that year, causing some changes in the environment and in the native bee community. A total of 2,335 individual bee specimens were collected, belonging to 102 species from four families. The family Apidae had the highest number of species (46%) and individuals (71%). Species richness, abundance, and diversity varied throughout the study period. Species proportions of lifestyles and nesting behaviors varied from month to month, and absolute numbers changed. Low to moderate similarity values indicated high monthly species turnover, with almost half of species present for only one to two months. Species richness declined after the hurricane, with a loss of 40% of the species present beforehand, but nine new species appeared in September. The hurricane also reduced the number of solitary, parasocial, and social species, mostly those nesting in preexisting cavities and wood. Species composition in August had similarity values nearer to those of months in the dry season than to those in the rainy season. Two months after the hurricane, the native bee community had returned to previous species diversity levels, probably due to the rapid recovery of the vegetation on which the bee community depends. Effective biodiversity conservation programs will need more data on changes in vegetation community structure and how such changes influence Neotropical native bee communities after natural disturbances.

In southern Bahia, Brazil, rapid deforestation of the Atlantic Forest threatens a variety of endemic wildlife, including the Endangered golden-headed lion tamarin (GHLT; Leontopithecus chrysomelas) and the Near Threatened Wied's black-tufted-ear marmoset (Wied's marmoset; Callithrix kuhlii). Identifying high quality areas in the landscape is critical for mounting efficient conservation programs for these primates. We constructed ecological niche models (ENMs) for GHLTs and Wied's marmosets using the presence-only algorithm Maxent to (1) locate suitable areas for each species, (2) examine the overlap in these areas, and (3) determine the amount of suitable habitat in protected areas. Our models indicate that 36% (10, 659 km²) of the study area is suitable for GHLTs and 53% (15, 642 km²) for Wied's marmosets. Suitable areas were strongly defined by presence of neighboring forest cover for both species, as well as annual temperature range for GHLTs and distance from urban areas for Wied's marmosets. Thirty-three percent of the landscape (9,809 km²) is overlapping suitable habitat. Given that the focal species form mixed-species groups, these areas of shared suitability may be key locations for preserving this important behavioral interaction. Protected areas contained 6% (651 km²) of all suitable habitat for GHLTs and 4% (682 km²) for Wied's marmosets. All protected areas were suitable for the focal species, excepting Serra do Conduru, which had low suitability for GHLTs. Our results highlight that suitable habitat for GHLTs and Wied's marmosets is limited and largely unprotected. Conservation action to protect additional suitable areas will be critical for their persistence.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been introduced from North America to a variety of habitats throughout the world, including the Caribbean island of St. Kitts. Often, non-native species are considered detrimental to the environment; however, the social acceptance of non-native species appears to be resulting in a shift of the perceived conservation value of non-native animals, to the extent that they are sometimes viewed as normal or desirable in natural systems. White-tailed deer were protected by the government of St. Kitts and Nevis in 1987 but difficulties in administering and enforcing the laws have hampered conservation and research efforts. Recent progress in funding the implementation and enforcement of conservation laws provides an opportunity to explore the socio-political value of conserving the population of white-tailed deer before threats to their persistence cause their extirpation.

Human-tiger conflict is one of the most critical issues in tiger conservation, requiring a focus on effective mitigation measures. We assessed the mitigation measures used between 2007 and 2014 in Chitwan National Park (CNP) and its buffer zone, which include: compensation payments made to human victims or their families, compensation for livestock loss through depredation, and the removal of tigers involved in conflicts. The data collected from the offices of CNP and the Buffer Zone Management Committee were triangulated during questionnaire surveys (n=83) and key informant interviews (n=13). A total compensation of US$ 93,618 ($11,702.3 per year) was paid for tiger attacks during the eight-year period. Of this, the majority (65%) was in payment for human killings, followed by payment for livestock depredations (29.3%) and for human injuries (5.7%). The payments on average covered 80.7% of medical expenses of injured persons, and 61.7% of the monetary value of killed livestock. Goats had the highest proportion of payments (43.5%) for livestock. A linear model suggested there was an increasing trend in total annual payments from $2,000 in 2007 to $21,536 in 2014, a jump of 976%. A total of 15 tigers were removed from the wild for conflict reasons: 11 by authorities, and four killed by local people in retaliation. Thirteen tigers were removed from the buffer zone alone. The majority of the removed tigers were adults (n=9) and healthy (n=9). Most (n=12) of the removed tigers were killed, or died after removal, indicating greater impacts of tiger-removal in CNP. We suggest that in order to encourage community engagement, compensation payments be paid quickly, an insurance scheme in the buffer zone be promoted, live-removed tigers be better managed, including radio-tracking of wild released individuals, and awareness programs be targeted at affected communities.

Tamarins are small-bodied Neotropical primates that mainly feed on ripe fruits and insects, and supplement their diet with plant exudates, nectar, fungi and vertebrate prey. They are important seed dispersers in Neotropical forests as they are able to disperse a large number of small and medium-sized seeds from parental trees. In this paper, we describe the diet of the white-footed tamarin (Saguinus leucopus) and its role as seed disperser in a fragmented landscape in Colombia. During a twelve month period, we collected data on activity patterns, ranging behavior and feeding ecology, as well as on habitat-wide forest productivity. S. leucopus fed from >95 plant species and spent 17% of their time feeding. We found a positive relationship between fruit consumption and ripe-fruit availability. Dietary diversity increased during periods of fruit scarcity, when the tamarins fed more on insects and exudates. During periods of fruit scarcity, they relied more heavily on the borders of forest fragments and made occasional incursions into adjacent fragments across a matrix of pastures. They used larger areas and had larger overlapping home ranges during periods of fruit scarcity. We recovered at least 44 species of seeds effectively dispersed by tamarins, including small and medium-sized seeds (range <1–26 mm). Seeds were dispersed up to 500m from parent trees across a wide diversity of habitat types. This study provides further evidence on the important role small-bodied frugivorous primates play in the recovery of forest connectivity and in the maintenance of tropical forest diversity in human-impacted landscapes.

Artificial perches have been considered an effective way to increase the influx of zoochoric seeds on degraded areas. A main barrier to seedling recruitment beneath perches is competition with other plants, including non-native or invasive species. We therefore believed that the seedling recruitment would increase with invasive species management through solarization. We assessed the use of artificial perches combined with solarization as a management technique for forest restoration. An outline of subdivided plots was installed in an abandoned pasture originally covered by subtropical Atlantic forest in southern Brazil. The invasive species were Nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus - Cyperaceae) and African Liverseed Grass (Urochloa arrecta - Poaceae). Solarization was achieved using a black polyethylene cover. Artificial perches were installed after solarization was complete. Seed rain and established plant community species were assessed. Solarization initially eliminated previously existing vegetation, but the effects were not long lasting. Invasive species grew aggressively by vegetative means from the borders of solarized areas. Artificial perches increased the influx of zoochoric seeds, but the seeds were unable to germinate and establish due to competition by the fast growing invasive species. The combined use of artificial perches and solarization for forest restoration seems to have limited effectiveness.

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASM) is becoming a significant cause of environmental degradation in tropical ecosystems. In this study, we conducted a rapid assessment on the impact of an ASM gold mine on the vocalizing avian and anuran communities in the buffer zone of the Tambopata National Reserve in Peru. We used seven audio recorders (three near an active mine, two in an abandoned mine, and two in an adjacent forest) to collect 2900 recordings to generate soundscapes and compare acoustic activity patterns of birds and anurans among sites. We identified 56 bird species during the morning chorus (05:00-07:00) and 9 anurans species in the evening chorus (18:00-20:00). Bird species richness was similar between the forest (28 bird species), the abandoned mine (25 species) and the active mine (24 species), but species richness of birds sensitive to disturbance was much lower in the active mine. In contrast, anuran species richness was highest in the active mine (5 species) and lowest in the forest (2 species). Results indicate that acoustic monitoring and soundscape analysis can be effective tools for evaluating the impact of mining activities on vocalizing species, and could become useful tools in rapid environmental impact assessments for mitigation and conservation strategies in ASM mining regions.

This study investigates the changes of tree species composition and diversity along the gradient from fragment edge to interior, and between edge and interior habitats, on a regional scale, in nine Atlantic forest fragments (6–120 ha), in southeastern Brazil. A total of 1980 trees (dbh ≥ 5 cm) comprising 252 species, 156 genera and 57 families were surveyed using the point-centered quarter method. From the fragment edge towards the interior the proportion of shade-tolerant trees increased continuously. The majority of all trees within the first 100 m from the edge belonged to the pioneer-guild. Floristic dissimilarity was found to be higher among interior habitats of different fragments than among the corresponding edge areas or among different small fragments. Species diversity increased along the edge-interior gradient 1.5 times within the first 250 m. Our results support previous findings that the establishment of edge-affected habitats leads to tree species impoverishment and homogenization via the dominance and proliferation of pioneer species in the forest edges of severely fragmented tropical landscapes. We argue that conservation strategies which include the creation of buffer zones between forest edges and the matrix will be more efficient than the establishment of narrow corridors to connect fragments and protected areas.

Benefit-sharing mechanisms between forest-based communities and governments are a way to meet conservation goals in developing countries, while still allowing forest-based income for local people. In Vietnam, the government implemented a pilot Benefit Sharing Mechanism (BSM) in Special Use Forests (SUFs), to develop a legal framework for sharing the benefits, rights, and responsibilities of forest conservation and management with local communities. One of the pilot areas is in Bach Ma National Park. We examined community involvement in the BSM pilot scheme in SUFs in the buffer zone of Bach Ma National Park located in Thuong Nhat commune, Nam Dong District. Sixty household surveys from two villages were undertaken in 2014. Most households agreed there were benefits, but some reported difficulties. Analysis of harvested non-timber forest products (NTFPs) showed a nearly 30% increase in average household income, based on regulated access to harvesting NTFPs by registered forest users. The difficulties experienced by those involved in the BSM pilot scheme included declining meeting attendance, infrequent meetings, harvested amounts of some NTFPs exceeding those allowed by the Benefit Sharing Arrangement, and forest protection teams failing to detect such irregularities. Finally, we suggest a number of improvements to BSM policies, such as incentives for forest protection team members to be more actively involved in harvest monitoring.

In a world of limited resources and so many species and habitats in need of protection, informed prioritization is essential. However, we cannot prioritize effectively if historical and current information regarding a particular habitat or species remains scattered. Several good platforms have been created to help users find, use and create biodiversity information. However, good platforms for sharing habitat information for threatened ecosystems are still lacking. Limestone hills are an example of threatened ecosystems that harbor unique biodiversity, but are facing intensifying anthropogenic disturbances. As limestone is a vital resource for the construction industry, it is not possible to completely halt forest degradation and quarrying in developing countries such as Malaysia, where 445 limestone hills have been recorded in the peninsula to date. As such, there is an urgent need to identify which hills must be prioritized for conservation. To make decisions based on sound science, collating spatial and biological information on limestone hills into a publicly accessible database is critical. Here, we compile Malaysia's first limestone hill GIS map for 445 limestone hills in the peninsula, based on information from geological reports and scientific literature. To assist in conservation prioritization efforts, we quantified characteristics of limestone hills in terms of size, degree of isolation, and spatial distribution patterns. We also assessed the degree of habitat disturbance in each limestone hill in terms of buffer area forest degradation and quarrying activity. These data are stored in a KMZ file and can be accessed through the Google Earth interface. Rather than being viewed as a final output containing basic limestone hill information, this database should be regarded as a foundational platform for users to collect, store, update and manipulate spatial and biological data from limestone hills to better inform decisions regarding their management.

Elephants (Loxodonta africana) raiding crops around Tanzanian national parks threaten farmers' lives and livelihoods, thus contributing to negative local attitudes towards wildlife. As a result, there is often tacit support for poaching among local communities, and elephants suffer through reprisal poisoning or wounding or through being shot as ‘problem animals’ by game wardens. Human-elephant conflict (HEC) is growing as the wildlands that still have elephants, especially around national parks, reserves, and wildlife corridors, are increasingly being settled. Sisal string fences soaked in engine oil mixed with ground chili (Capsicum spp.) can dissuade elephants from entering fenced fields. For the last nine years, farmers around Mikumi National Park in Tanzania have been constructing these fences around ripening crops, and there have been no incidents of fences being broken by elephants. Community-based organizations (CBOs) that manage members' savings through village micro-credit associations help ensure the costs of materials and fence construction are met. Chili fences are rapidly becoming widespread, facilitated through farmer-to-farmer exchanges where teams of farmers demonstrate both the fences and the CBOs needed to support the project. We argue that promoting the use of chili fences, coupled with supporting CBOs, as a best practice within communities and government programs and budgets, will help reduce the need for HEC compensation, protect livelihoods, empower rural women, increase the food security of rural farmers, and help conserve elephants.