A change in seasonal flooding cycles in the Amazon may negatively impact nesting success of the Giant South American Turtle (Podocnemis expansa). Our aim was to devise a technique that could be replicated in the entire Amazon basin, for monitoring alterations in fluvial cycles and their effects on turtle nest mortality. We mapped the spatial distribution and height of P. expansa nests and tested the effects of different inundation scenarios within the Trombetas River Biological Reserve, Para state, Brazil. We also used historical data on water level and hatchling production to test whether the sharp decline in the Trombetas River P. expansa population over the past thirty years was related to detected changes in the flood pulse. Our models indicate that an increase of 1.5 m in the water level is sufficient to decrease the time of exposure to less than the minimum required for incubation and hatching (55 days above the water) in 50% of the nesting area. This model explains the low hatchling production in dry seasons when the total nesting site exposure was less than 200 days. Since 1971, there was an average decline of 15 days per decade in sandbank exposure during the nesting season (a total of 62 days from 1971 to 2015). However, the decrease in sandbank exposure was not significantly correlated with the sharp decline in hatchling production. Changes to the water cycle in combination with the main sources of decline (overharvest, construction of dams, and dredging of riverbeds) might have an accumulative effect on P. expansa populations.

The distribution and endemicity patterns of Gomphales in Mexico are analyzed here for the first time. Richness and corrected endemism were obtained from a dataset of 3,483 records for 97 species, using a cell-grid system of one degree per side. The central region of Mexico (Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Hidalgo and Estado de México states), which includes most of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre Oriental biogeographic provinces, had the highest richness values, but Mexican areas in the Pacific Coast (Jalisco and Michoacán states) and southeastern Mexico (Oaxaca and Chiapas states) had the most distinctive composition, as measured by the corrected endemism index. Two main distributional patterns were recovered: a) montane: at elevations above 1000 m on coniferous, pine-oak, oak and cloud forests, typified by the presence of species of Ramaria and Clavariadelphus, b) lowlands: at elevations below 1000 m mainly in evergreen, rainforest and deciduous tropical forests characterized by the presence of four tropical species of Lentaria, two tropical species of Gomphus endemic to Mexico, and four tropical species of Phaeoclavulina. The eight species of Gomphales endemic to Mexico have very restricted distribution, mostly in non-protected areas, and are not considered under special protection programs. The present contribution delineates general patterns of distribution for the Gomphales, and documents its diversity and endemism in Mexico.

Some tropical countries, such as Colombia, are venturing into the international carbon market by means of avoided deforestation programs, i.e., they seek carbon credits by not cutting down forests. Consequently, basic information about carbon storage in different forest types is urgently needed. We describe the tree community dynamics of forest fragments in cattle ranches of the western Orinoco basin, and their relationship to the forests’ ability to accumulate carbon. We re-sampled three 1-ha vegetation plots after six and seven years of establishment. We found that these forests have different population dynamics; smaller fragments have negative net population change, but the dynamics allow for an annual carbon accumulation rate of around 0.57 Mg ha⁻¹. This rate is similar to the rate reported for some mature Amazon forests and may be attributed to high soil fertility.

Tropical ecosystems are among the most vulnerable to climate change. Understanding climate impacts on these ecosystems is a primary challenge for policy makers, ecologists, and conservationists today. We analyzed the vulnerability of ecosystems in a very heterogeneous tropical region in southern Ecuador, selected because of its exceptional biodiversity and its ecosystem services provided to people of southern Ecuador and northern Peru. The vulnerability assessment focused on three components: exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. For the first two components, we identified stressors or drivers of change that negatively influence ecosystems. For the third component, we identified existing and potential buffers that reduce impacts. This process was developed in workshops and by expert elicitation. Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios were used, considering RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5 for a time horizon to 2050. Under the RCP 2.6 scenario, the components of overall vulnerability in the southern region of Ecuador showed very low to moderate vulnerability for most areas, particularly in semi-deciduous forest ecosystems, Amazon semi-deciduous forest, Amazon rainforest, and mangrove forests. These areas had high vulnerability under the RCP 8.5 scenario. A variety of conservation strategies (e.g., protected areas) were shown to increase the adaptive capacity of ecosystems and reduce their vulnerability. We therefore recommend improving these conservation initiatives in ecosystems like dry forests, where the greatest vulnerability is evident.

One way to draw attention to an area regarding conservation is to declare it as an Atlantic Forest Biosphere Reserve (RBMA). In this article, we analyzed attributes related to different forest remnants, including the only RBMA of Santa Catarina state (Brazil), a modified old-growth Subtropical Atlantic Forest remnant. We brought evidences that patterns of distribution of species abundance and species diversity are influenced by highly dominant species. We found a relevant proportion of endemic tree/shrub species and three endangered species. These findings demonstrate the relevant biodiversity of the Subtropical Atlantic Forest of Santa Catarina. The diversity profiles of the RBMA and other areas overlapped. This finding, which has an important conservational implication that the tree species diversity in these areas is similar. Therefore, we concluded that the areas considered in our study deserve attention regarding biological conservation. New priority areas for conservation are necessary, and the establishment of new RBMA may be a way to achieve this goal.

The Uxpanapa-Chimalapas region, with one of the most extensive and best preserved tropical forest areas in Mexico, is undergoing major anthropogenic changes, and only some portions of the territory are under the protection of local communities. Although the biodiversity of the region is known to be high, no study has yet analyzed the diversity of amphibian species in the region or contributed to valuing the region in a context of amphibian conservation. Based on a review of databases and the existing scientific literature, as well as our own fieldwork, in this study, we analyze the amphibian species richness, species composition, their spatial distribution, and their conservation status in the Uxpanapa-Chimalapas region. Additionally, we compare this information with the available data for seven other tropical regions in central-northern Mesoamerica. The amphibian fauna recorded at the study region comprises 51 species, which makes it the richest tropical region in amphibian species in central-northern Mesoamerica and Mexico. Among the regions compared, this one stands out as the one with the most distinctive composition of amphibian species, sharing on average only 35% of its species with the other regions. However, it is also the region with the highest number of threatened species since one third of its species are in higher extinction risk categories. These characteristics turn the Uxpanapa-Chimalapas into a high-priority region for both Mexico and Mesoamerica, and a regional conservation plan is necessary for the immediate protection of areas where the forest is being replaced and to promote or to support community protected areas.

Amazonia National Park is located in southwestern Pará State in central Amazonia. The 10,707 km² park is one of the largest protected areas in Brazil and is covered with pristine forests, but the region is threatened by dam construction projects. An incomplete mammal biodiversity inventory was conducted in the area during the late 1970s. Here, we present results of sampling from 7,295 live-trap nights, 6,000 pitfall-trap nights, more than 1,200 km of walking transect censuses, and approximately 3,500 camera-trap days, all conducted between 2012 and 2014. These sampling efforts generated a list of 86 known species of nonvolant mammals, making the park the single most species-rich area for nonvolant mammals both in the Amazon Basin and in the Neotropics as a whole. Amazonia National Park is a megadiverse site, as is indicated by its mammalian richness, which includes 15 threatened mammal species and 5 to 12 new species of small mammals. As such, it merits being a high-conservation priority and should be an important focus of Brazilian authorities’ and the international scientific community’s conservation efforts. A comprehensive conservation plan is urgently needed, especially given the ecological threats posed by dam construction.

The objective of our study was to review and quantify the level of knowledge of the biology of tortoise and freshwater turtle species of Colombia based on studies conducted in the country. We used the resulting rankings in knowledge, in combination with IUCN threat category, presence in protected areas, and endemism, to propose conservation priorities. This process also allowed us to evaluate which aspects of turtle biology have been least studied. Four species obtained total values of zero or one over the 21 knowledge criteria employed, so they were ranked as the highest priority for research based on the lack of knowledge of their biology: Black-lined Toad-headed Turtle (Mesoclemmys raniceps), Amazon Toad-headed Turtle (Mesoclemmys heliostemma), Gibba Toad-headed Turtle (Mesoclemmys gibba), and Dunn’s Mud Turtle (Kinosternon dunni). Moreover, species in the family Chelidae in general were found to have limited levels of knowledge, which makes this group a priority for investigation. Evaluation of the distinct criteria used in the knowledge assessment revealed that the best-known criteria were geographic distribution (modeled), presence or absence in protected areas, and clutch size. The most poorly known biological characteristics, which constitute research priorities, are the frequency of nesting, longevity and generation time, and population parameters. According to the criteria used, the priority species for conservation were the Magdalena River Turtle (Podocnemis lewyana), Dahl’s Toad-headed Turtle (Mesoclemmys dahli), K. dunni, and Maracaibo Wood Turtle (Rhinoclemmys diademata), three of which are endemic or semiendemic (R. diademata only occurs in Colombia and Venezuela), followed by two species of Mesoclemmys.

Myanmar is considered as a stronghold for wild elephants, though past estimates varied widely from 3,000 to 10,000. Results of a 2004 expert workshop showed estimates between 1,430 and 2,065. Building on surveys from 1990 to 1992, we conducted new expert interviews in townships throughout the range, with questions focusing on numbers of elephants living in townships and threats to and from elephants. We used general linear models to analyze characteristics of townships with and without elephants and to understand factors influencing changes in elephant presence. Our results show a major decrease in the geographic distribution of wild elephants in Myanmar between 1992 and 2006 with deforestation being the major driver. While forest cover is important for elephant presence, continuity with other elephant populations had a stonger influence on elephant persistence between surveys. Fragmentation of elephant populations is also a major driver of decline. Increases in forest cover increased elephant presence, while increases in edge and human population had the reverse effect. Deforestation and fragmentation lead to increased human–elephant conflict in some areas, sometimes concluding with the capture of elephants for timber operations and further draining wild populations. A national elephant action plan that includes monitoring of elephant status and threats is urgently needed and critical for Myanmar’s wild elephants, particularly as more than 50 years of political isolation are rapidly ending and pressure on the country’s natural resources is increasing exponentially.

The long-snouted bat (Platalina genovensium) is an endemic nectar-feeding bat from arid regions in western Peru and Chile. In certain areas of its distribution, it is likely the only bat pollinator and seed disperser of plants, and it is currently highly endangered. However, some aspects of its ecology, diet, and pollinator role remain unknown, especially in the unique and endangered lomas ecosystem. We conducted monthly evaluations of bats and plants over 15 months in the lomas of the National Reserve of Lachay (Peru) by sampling in three different plant communities along the Guayabito gorge. We collected fecal and pollen fur samples from 16 individuals of P. genovensium and recorded the phenology of its potential plant food resources. We differentiated fecal sample components and then identified and counted all pollen morphotypes in order to estimate their frequency and abundance in the samples. We also analyzed the niche breadth. Our results showed that the dietary components of P. genovensium included nectar, pollen, fruits, and insects, and that it utilized the cacti community for feeding. Pollen of the genus Haageocereus (Cactaceae) was the most frequent and abundant resource recorded, which was available all year long; moreover, the niche breadth analysis revealed that P. genovensium has a specialized diet on the Haageocereus cactus in Lachay. Finally, we suggest that P. genovensium could serve as a pollinator for Haageocereus acranthus, Haageocereus pseudomelanostele, and Puya ferruginea (Bromeliaceae) due to the large pollen loads it carries and the specific placement of pollen on different body zones.

Urbanization is known to be a major driver in abundance and species richness of birds. However, how birds respond to urbanization in tropical cities is understudied in general and entirely absent from Myanmar. We conducted a study in and around Mandalay, a large city in central Myanmar to gather first data on birds and their response to urbanization. We selected four habitats with 10 sampling points each in November 2015. We made 1,536 observations of 68 bird species. The number of species and diversity significantly differed between the four localities. Mandalay Hill and Downtown Mandalay had the lowest number of species and diversity, whereas the University Campus and Paddy Fields had the highest. The highest number of observations was in Downtown Mandalay (1,003 counts) and the lowest on Mandalay Hill (103). Nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination techniques showed that the four habitat types had significantly different bird species composition. Our results indicate a large effect of urbanization on species diversity, species richness, and species composition of birds.

Body condition score (BCS) systems have been used in wild animals as a technique for evaluating the health status of species that are difficult to capture but can be observed in their habitat. In this study, our goal was to enable scoring the BC of wild Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) without the need for direct observation, using camera trap and opportunistic photographic records. First, we modified a BCS assessment that was created for other tapir species, using captive Baird’s tapirs. Second, we applied it to a set of photographs of wild Baird’s tapir that were obtained over six consecutive years in a protected area in southern Mexico. We compared morphometric measurements and muscle and fat deposited in several anatomical regions. We also evaluated changes in BC between seasons for individuals photographed on several occasions. We show that neck and thorax circumferences are significantly correlated with all BCSs associated with these anatomical regions, whereas abdominal circumference is correlated only with half of the BCS. BCS of captive tapirs that we evaluated averaged 24.93 ± 5.61, which was higher than that of wild tapirs (22.63 ± 3.68). No significant difference in BC was apparent between rainy and dry seasons in our study site; wild tapirs were able to maintain good BC throughout the year. Camera trap records and opportunistic photographs were a useful tool to track changes in BC over time.

Várzeas are forest areas seasonally flooded by white-water rivers and have a variety of tree species, which bear fruit during the filling or flood and in the beginning of low water periods. During those periods of inundation, fruits and seeds are important resources for different fish species. In this study, the viability of whole seeds removed from the stomach and intestine of fishes was analyzed. Fishes were collected with gillnets installed during 24-hr cycles along the flooded forest, during the filling, flood, and in the beginning of low water periods of the Year 2014 in the Catalão lake, Brazilian Central Amazon. In total, 1,915 specimens of fish were captured, and 148 specimens (8% from the total) contained seeds in their digestive tracts. Some fishes that consumed seeds are species commercially important and have migratory habits. Fishes consumed 3,092 seeds. All whole seeds removed from the digestive tracts of fishes were seeded in várzea soil and maintained in a greenhouse. Seeds of 16 plant species (89%) germinated. Our conclusion is that fish species can play an important role in the ecology of várzea forests by dispersing seeds, contributing to the colonization of new areas, and allowing genetic flow between subpopulations distributed along the rivers.

This study describes perceptions and knowledge of the jaguar among children in communities neighboring the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas, Mexico. There have been several cases of livestock depredation by the jaguar in these communities, and the study aimed to determine children’s perceptions of the jaguar in light of this problem. A total of 102 children from four communities on the banks of the Rio Lacantún River, adjacent to the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, were involved in the study. The children were between 6 and 12 years old. Interviews, drawing, and participant observation were the main research tools employed. A high percentage of the children recognize the jaguar as a species that lives in the jungle. Likewise, they consider it to be a dangerous animal that eats people and livestock. In general, the children had little knowledge of the physical characteristics of the species. This study represents an initial step in defining methodologies for socioecological studies with children. Immediate lines of action have been identified from the data generated, and these will form a basis for an environmental education strategy in the region.

Animal road mortality is the product of multiple factors. We sought to examine the impact of roads on Bolivian biodiversity by quantifying road mortality in a community of tropical snakes and examine variation in road-kills in the context of extrinsic (seasonal effects) and intrinsic factors (habitat guild, sex). From 2007 to 2011, we surveyed the old Santa Cruz-Cochabamba highway and local dirt roads in Florida Province, Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. We observed 1,444 snake road-kills comprised at least 32 species from 21 genera and 4 families. Nearly one fifth (18.4%) of road-killed species are endemic to the region. A temporal peak in road mortality was observed in February in the middle of the rainy season and was lowest in July coinciding with the dry season. Male snakes were more frequently killed than females and male mortality peaked during the mid to late rainy season. Habitat guild had a significant influence on the species occurrence during the road surveys; road-kills of terrestrial snakes were observed more frequently compared with fossorial, arboreal, semi-arboreal, and semi-aquatic species. The impact of roads on Bolivian biodiversity, including snakes, is expected to increase, as road networks in the region continue to expand. Documenting additional interspecific and intraspecific variation in vulnerabilities to road mortality is needed to better understand the long-term impacts of roads on population persistence as well as inform the design and implementation of mitigation efforts.

Knowledge of fundamental aspects of ecology such as species richness and distribution, and the factors affecting them, is increasingly used to identify priority areas for conservation and to effectively manage threatened species. We investigated the species richness and distribution pattern of nonhuman primate communities inhabiting 10 sampling sites in four different habitat classes corresponding to increasing habitat disturbance level, that is, old growth forest, twice logged forest, repeatedly logged forest, and oil palm plantation, in and around Kalabakan Forest Reserve, in central Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. By using direct and indirect survey methods, we confirmed the existence of 9 out of the total 10 primate species, found in Sabah, within the surveyed areas. Based on the monthly number of primate species detected, our results indicated a general trend of decreasing primate species richness with increasing habitat disturbance level. However, the response within the disturbed forest sites showed some variations with some sites in repeatedly logged forest displaying comparable primate species number to that of the undisturbed forest sites. We also found that within the forest habitats, tree density is a good predictor of the richness of the primate community with a positive effect. Hence, tree density may be a key indicator for evaluating primate communities in forest habitats. Overall, the results of our study suggest that although not equivalent to areas of undisturbed forest, degraded forests—including those that have been repeatedly logged—are still valuable for primate conservation. In contrast, oil palm plantations have mainly negative effects on the primate community.

Interspecific variation in plant functional traits is the basis of species coexistence in natural ecosystems. However, intraspecific variation is extremely important to community assemblage as well. Here, we quantify leaf trait variation within and across 32 dominant shrub species within two different leaf forms (16 evergreen species and 16 deciduous species) in subtropical evergreen and deciduous broadleaf mixed forest in the Karst topography of Guilin, southwest China. Results showed that leaf area (LA) and leaf thickness (LT) of evergreen species were significantly lower than those of deciduous species, whereas specific leaf areas (SLA) and leaf dry matter content (LDMC) showed the opposite pattern. For SLA and LA, the majority variance was found among species (50.82% vs. 65.01%) and little was found within species (22.98% vs. 27.89%), whereas the largest variation was within species (44.87% vs. 48.2%) with little among species (40.73% vs. 43%) for LDMC and LT. The large variability of LDMC and LT within species may reflect niche differentiation and the importance of intraspecific variation on species coexistence. Our results will help design conservation strategies for this unique subtropical evergreen-deciduous broadleaved forest ecosystem.

The increasing conversion of primary tropical moist forest to secondary forest may have consequences for threatened, large-bodied cavity-nesters, such as the Northern Mealy Amazon (Amazona guatemalae). We determined availability and characteristics of tree-cavities in 24 1-ha survey plots in Los Chimalapas, southeast Mexico, with 9 plots in evergreen forest, 7 in riparian, and 8 in secondary forest. We compared these with 40 parrot nest-trees to determine whether parrots select cavities with specific characteristics for nesting. Over half of Northern Mealy Amazon nests occurred in live trees of Terminalia amazonia (32.5%) and Dialium guianense (20%). Compared with available cavities, the Northern Mealy Amazon selected nest-cavities in significantly larger trees, at a greater height above the ground, with larger internal diameter, and greater depth. In particular, internal diameter and cavity depth predicted whether a cavity was selected as a nest-site by parrots. We found a low density of 2.3 available cavities/ha in the study site, although only 1.6 cavities/ha had characteristics suitable for use as nest-sites by parrots. Cavities in secondary forest occurred in smaller trees, at a lower height, and with shallower depth, where only 0.75 cavities/ha were suitable for nesting by parrots. Our results demonstrate that the Northern Mealy Amazon requires nest-cavities in large, old trees able to form large cavities, the majority of which occur in primary forest. The low density of suitable nest-sites for parrots in secondary forest suggests that increased degradation of primary tropical moist forest may have long-term implications for reproduction of this threatened species.

In sub-Saharan Africa, anthropogenic activities such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao) farming have replaced the natural forest vegetation, making agricultural environments more readily available to some species of bats. To augment bat conservation in such highly modified agro-environments, we evaluated the foraging decisions of the widely distributed Noack’s round-leaf bat (Hipposideros aff. ruber) in a Ghanaian agro-environment for two factors: (a) foraging durations and (b) habitat selection from radio telemetry data collected from 13 bats. We hypothesized that it opportunistically selects foraging habitats in proportion to its availability. Our compositional analysis revealed, however, a nonrandom use of habitats. A ranking matrix indicated Hipposideros aff. ruber uses all available habitats but strongly preferred seminatural habitats dominated by fallow lands. Cocoa farms were predominantly used as flight paths for commuting between roosts and other nearby habitats during foraging. We observed a mean foraging duration of 109 min (SD = 62 min) per night for the species. In conclusion, our data suggest that (a) they are flexible in selecting all habitat types in the agro-environment but strongly preferred fallow matrices, (b) the provision of canopy trees within the agro-environment serves as flight paths for commuting from roost to habitats offering higher prey densities, and (3) the maintenance of fallow matrices as conservation units in sub-Saharan agro-environments helps augment conservation efforts of the species.

Peru and especially its northeastern regions are considered a global conservation priority because of high biodiversity and the acute threats they face. Despite the Peruvian state’s declared intention to end forest loss, deforestation is on the rise. This is in part due to rural–rural and urban–rural migration to forest frontier zones. This migration is often organized and led by land traffickers. In this article, we use ethnographic methods and case studies to identify major land trafficking types, the interactions between traffickers and local communities, and conservation initiatives as well as authorities’ capacity to respond to this illicit practice. Land trafficking exists at different scales and can be highly lucrative. Loopholes in Peruvian laws, conflicting policies, and institutional inefficiencies impede effective confrontation of land trafficking and in some cases even encourage it. Corruption plays an essential role in facilitating this trade. Although local people are often aware of the problems related to land trafficking, their ability to control it is greatly impeded by social factors and by the dangers of confronting organized criminals. Land trafficking is seldom studied but has great environmental and social implications and must be addressed both on academic and practical levels in order to confront biodiversity loss related to migration to forest frontiers.

Riparian forests are often the last remaining areas of natural vegetation in agricultural and plantation forestry landscapes. Covering millions of hectares of land in Indonesia, industrial pulpwood plantations have rapidly replaced native forests. Our study aimed to better understand the conservation importance of linear remnants of riparian forest by examining their use by larger (>1 kg) mammal species. Our study site was located within an extensive acacia (Acacia mangium) plantation adjoining Tesso Nilo National Park in Sumatra, Indonesia. Camera traps were used to detect mammals at 57 sites to assess the effects of corridor design and land cover covariates and species behavioral traits on mammal habitat use of four linear riparian forests. We recorded 17 species (including one International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] Critically Endangered, two Endangered, and four Vulnerable) in riparian forests inside the plantation, including the Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), Malay tapir (Tapirus indicus), and sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). Some threatened species were only detected in the park buffer zone. Species varied in their responses to riparian forests, but distance to the national park, remnant width, and percent forest cover around the camera site were common predictors of remnant use. Many mammal species used riparian forests regardless of whether they were surrounded by intact acacia forests or recently cleared land. Our results indicate that linear remnant riparian forests ≤ 200 m in width can facilitate local (< 4 km) movements of many large mammal species in Sumatra, but wider riparian remnants would likely be more effective at promoting mammal movements over longer distances.