Salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) are an important resource for terrestrial wildlife. However, the salmon requirements of wildlife populations and the role wildlife play in nutrient transport across ecosystems are largely ignored in salmon and habitat management. Any activity that reduces the availability of or access to salmon by wildlife may adversely affect wildlife populations and, potentially, ecosystem-level processes. Thus, when the conservation of specific wildlife populations or healthy ecosystems is the management objective, allocation of salmon to wildlife should be considered. We provide an example of how such allocations could be calculated for a hypothetical bear population. Ultimately, salmon allocation for wildlife calls for integrated management of natural resources across agencies, across species, and across ecosystems. We summarize the current state of knowledge relative to the interaction between Pacific salmon and the terrestrial ecosystem, with special emphasis on the import of salmon to terrestrial wildlife and the import of wildlife to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

For many years, the primary strategy for managing grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) that came into conflict with humans in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) was to capture and translocate the offending bears away from conflict sites. Translocation usually only temporarily alleviated the problems and most often did not result in long-term solutions. Wildlife managers needed to be able to predict the causes, types, locations, and trends of conflicts to more efficiently allocate resources for pro-active rather than reactive management actions. To address this need, we recorded all grizzly bear–human conflicts reported in the GYE during 1992–2000. We analyzed trends in conflicts over time (increasing or decreasing), geographic location on macro- (inside or outside of the designated Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Recovery Zone [YGBRZ]) and micro- (geographic location) scales, land ownership (public or private), and relationship to the seasonal availability of bear foods. We recorded 995 grizzly bear–human conflicts in the GYE. Fifty-three percent of the conflicts occurred outside and 47% inside the YGBRZ boundary. Fifty-nine percent of the conflicts occurred on public and 41% on private land. Incidents of bears damaging property and obtaining anthropogenic foods were inversely correlated to the abundance of naturally occurring bear foods. Livestock depredations occurred independent of the availability of bear foods. To further aid in prioritizing management strategies to reduce conflicts, we also analyzed conflicts in relation to subsequent human-caused grizzly bear mortality. There were 74 human-caused grizzly bear mortalities during the study, primarily from killing bears in defense of life and property (43%) and management removal of bears involved in bear–human conflicts (28%). Other sources of human-caused mortality included illegal kills, electrocution by downed power-lines, mistaken identification by American black bear (Ursus americanus) hunters, and vehicle strikes. This analysis will help provide wildlife managers the information necessary to develop strategies designed to prevent conflicts from occurring rather than reacting to conflicts after they occur.

Animal rights groups have lobbied for the cancellation of Manitoba's spring hunting season for American black bear (Ursus americanus), contending that hundreds of cubs are orphaned each year. We developed a mathematical model to estimate the number of black bear cubs that may be orphaned in Manitoba because of the spring hunting season. The model used information from annual questionnaires mailed to resident hunters, Outfitter Declaration Forms from operators who provide services to non-resident clients, and analysis of reproductive tracts (>200 for both spring and fall seasons) and tooth samples (>1,100). To accurately reflect the number of cubs orphaned each spring, the model accounted for cub losses (both litter reduction and total litter loss) prior to a female being harvested using values from the literature. Although the data was not used in the model, evidence from the examination of reproductive tracts suggests that total litter loss of hunter killed bears can be determined by examining the condition of the uterus and ovaries. The model estimated that on average, 41 cubs were orphaned for each of the spring seasons between 1996 and 2000. This number represents <2% of the estimated number of cubs that may die annually in Manitoba from natural causes.

We studied the relationship between human development and activity, and subadult grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) by comparing the distribution of radiotelemetry locations from 23 subadult versus 29 adult grizzly bears during 1994–2000 in the Bow River Watershed of Alberta, Canada. We used logistic regression to model significant differences in the spatial distribution of subadult and adult grizzly bears and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test for significant differences in temporal distribution. Subadult bears were significantly closer to high-use roads and at lower elevations than adult bears. Both subadult and adult bears were significantly closer to high-use roads and at lower elevations during human inactive periods (1800–0700) than during human active periods (0700–1800). Subadult bears were closer to high-use roads regardless of the time of day, and therefore predisposed to greater encounter rates with humans. Consequently, subadult bears had a greater chance of becoming habituated to humans and of being killed or removed from the population by humans than adult bears. In areas with high levels of human use, we recommend that grizzly bear managers consider the population effects of these losses.

The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is the largest carnivore in Turkey. Its present distribution is mainly confined to the intact natural habitats of the Black Sea and Eastern Anatolian regions. Forest fragmentation and direct persecution by humans have resulted in population declines in other regions during the last 50 years. Human–bear conflicts are more often observed in the eastern Black Sea than other areas within Turkey, but the species does not seriously threaten humans in Turkey. Turkish authorities have not kept records of bear damage, but depredation has mainly occurred on cattle and sheep. The brown bear has a more positive image among the local people than the wolf (Canis lupus). Brown bears are a protected species, but protected areas in Turkey are too small to provide a refuge for the species. Priority actions for the conservation of brown bears in Turkey are legislation development and implementation, research on population status and range, expansion of current protected areas, and identification of new ones. Public awareness and capacity building of the local authorities on theoretical and practical aspects of wildlife management, such as designing surveys, collecting systematic data, analyzing and reporting data, and brown bear handling techniques, will also play a critical role.

We summarize and report survival and cause-specific mortality of grizzly bears in the Cabinet–Yaak and Selkirk Mountains recovery zones from 1983–2002 to examine effects on the populations. Fifty-four percent of total known mortality in the Cabinet–Yaak was human-caused (n = 28) and 80% of total known mortality in the Selkirk Mountains was human-caused (n = 40). We investigated demographic values of 53 and 61 radiocollared grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and attendant offspring in the Cabinet–Yaak and Selkirk Mountains recovery zones, respectively from 1983–2002. Nineteen mortalities of radiocollared animals or offspring were detected in the Cabinet–Yaak sample and 20 in the Selkirk Mountains. Estimated survival rates were 0.929 (95% CI = 0.091) for adult females, 0.847 (95% CI = 0.153) for adult males, 0.771 (95% CI = 0.208) for subadult females, 0.750 (95% CI = 0.520) for subadult males, 0.875 (95% CI = 0.231) for yearlings, and 0.679 (95% CI = 0.179) for cubs in the Cabinet–Yaak. Estimated survival rates for the Selkirk Mountains were 0.936 (95% CI = 0.064) for adult females, 0.908 (95% CI = 0.102) for adult males, 0.900 (95% CI = 0.197) for subadult females, 0.765 (95% CI = 0.176) for subadult males, 0.784 (95% CI = 0.178) for yearlings, and 0.875 (95% CI = 0.125) for cubs. Reproductive rates were 0.291 and 0.284 female cubs/year/adult female for the Cabinet–Yaak and Selkirk Mountains recovery zones, respectfully. The annual exponential rate of increase (r) was −0.037 for the Cabinet–Yaak recovery zone and 0.018 for the Selkirk Mountains.

We used a broad-scale model based on observations of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) or their sign, calibrated to reported putative death rate, to appraise current habitat conditions in the Cabinet–Yaak region of Montana. Habitat capability (i.e., potential grizzly bear densities) and regional human population sizes had the greatest effects in this model. We predicted the effects of (1) human population increases ( 150% anticipated by 2023), (2) changes in lethality of humans (i.e., the probability that a human would kill a bear given an encounter), and (3) differences in the ratio of unknown to known bear deaths on the extent and location of potential source areas. We predicted densities of 1.0 and 2.1 grizzly bears/100 km² with and without human impacts, respectively. Under our baseline scenario (3% sustainable mortality and 1:1 ratio of unknown to known bear deaths), we predicted that 2 source areas totaling 9,156 km² and potentially supporting 123 bears occurred in our study area. With projected human population increases, potential source areas and bear populations declined by 33% and 45%, respectively. A spatially uniform increase of 1% in annual death rate (as a surrogate for increased human lethality) reduced potential source areas and bear numbers by 41% and 36%. Source areas and bear numbers declined by 39% and 34% if the ratio of unknown to known grizzly bear deaths was 2:1 versus 1:1. We obtained the best match with current population estimates (about 35 bears) assuming a 2:1 ratio of unknown to known deaths and a very low sustainable death rate of 2%. This implies either high levels of illegal human-caused mortality and low birth and recruitment rates or a population smaller than currently estimated. We conclude that human numbers and human lethality will likely govern the fate of grizzly bears in this region.

Providing opportunities for grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) to move between blocks of habitat is important for the long-term conservation of grizzly bear populations. While the particulars of grizzly bear habitat selection during long-distance movements are poorly understood, some landscape characteristics such as road density and land cover type are correlated with grizzly bear habitat use at various scales. We compiled digital maps of roads, human population density, land cover class, and topography to evaluate the resistance of the year 2001 landscape to grizzly bear movement in Washington State and adjacent portions of Idaho and British Columbia (BC). We developed habitat association and dispersal habitat suitability models based on published literature and used geographic information system (GIS) weighted-distance and least-cost analysis techniques to evaluate landscape permeability for grizzly bear movement. Our analysis identified 5 blocks of potential grizzly bear habitat in Washington and adjacent areas, including the Columbia–Selkirk Mountains, the North Cascades, the Central Cascades, the South Cascades, and the Coast Range. We evaluated landscape permeability between these habitat blocks and highlighted potential linkage areas. Our models indicated the Stevens Pass fracture zone between the North and Central Cascades blocks was the most permeable, followed (in order of relative permeability) by the Fraser–Coquihalla fracture zone between the North Cascades and the Coast Range, the Okanogan–Kettle fracture zone between the North Cascades and the Columbia Mountains, and the Snoqualmie Pass fracture zone between the Central and South Cascades. This evaluation provides a consistent measure of the expected potential for grizzly movement across a broad landscape that can be used to target areas for finer-scale evaluation and help identify landscape management priorities at a regional scale.

Small, isolated populations of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) typically have poor survival outlooks. Persistence of such populations will depend on either intrusive, resource-intensive management, or re-connection with other subpopulations through linkage habitat. Much of the discussion of linkage habitat focuses on ecological information. We cannot overlook, however, the cultural and political dimensions of these landscapes. People who have lived with recovering and expanding populations have valuable insight and practical knowledge that should inform management and conservation programs. Thus, these areas provide good prospects for designing innovative programs adapted to local situations. Capitalizing on such opportunities requires a systematic approach to understanding social context and involving local people in research and planning. Small-scale, participatory projects can provide models for subsequent conservation projects and build political support by demonstrating success. This paper provides a conceptual framework and a general strategy for achieving linkage habitat conservation. Lessons are drawn from a variety of emerging projects.

Unlimited use of forest roads can result in taking of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and reduced progress toward recovery. We examined trends in road development and motorized access management in the Cabinet–Yaak and Selkirk grizzly bear recovery zones by evaluating 3 bear management units (BMUs) for amount and density of open and total roads and security core habitat during 3 periods (1975, 1987, and 2001). New road construction and access management activities such as road use restrictions, road closures and road decommissioning governed the amount and kinds of roads present. In 1975, nearly all roads were open to public access, but the amount of open roads declined during subsequent periods. Closed roads increased correspondingly, and by 1987, public motorized access was excluded from the majority of roads in some BMUs. Road decommissioning, nonexistent in 1975 and 1987, was common by 2001. Even with new construction, there were fewer open roads in 2001 than in 1987 and 1975 for all 3 BMUs examined. Due to road decommissioning, the total length of roads in 2001 was less than during at least 1 of the 2 previous periods for all BMUs examined. For most BMUs, open motorized route density (OMRD) and total motorized route density (TMRD) peaked in 1987, and security core habitat reached its lowest level during that period. However, access management activities after approval of Forest Plans in 1987 resulted in decreases in OMRD and TMRD and increases in security core habitat. As of 2002, most of the 30 BMUs in the Cabinet–Yaak and Selkirk grizzly bear recovery zones either met or were moving toward recommended OMRD, TMRD, and security core levels. Improved habitat security through reduced open and total road densities and increased security core habitat is likely to assist in limiting grizzly bear mortality and enhancing the likelihood grizzly bears will persist in these recovery zones. Had these improvements in security not occurred, we believe these grizzly bear populations would be even more imperiled than they currently are.

The process of recovering small populations of grizzly bears such as the one occupying the North Cascades Mountains of southwestern British Columbia and northwestern Washington is a long-term one from both biological and social perspectives, and carries uncertain prospects for success. I describe the development of a grizzly bear recovery plan for the British Columbia portion of the North Cascades Ecosystem and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the approach used. I discuss common challenges for any effort to recover a small grizzly bear population and suggest ways to address these challenges and to build successful recovery plans for remnant and extirpated grizzly bear populations.

Land management decisions affecting threatened or endangered species are often based on literature reviewed by agency biologists or by the evaluation of empirical data by technical committees. Regardless, it is not often that research can address all of the issues that arise when developing management guidelines. Successful integration of research and management may depend on the effectiveness of technical committees assigned to the task. In the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE) of western Montana, a technical committee was established to develop road access standards for public lands. As a member of this committee, I had the opportunity to observe committee protocol and internal dynamics as they affected committee performance and outcome. In this paper I briefly trace the history of road management in the NCDE and suggest improvements to the performance of interagency technical committees so they will better succeed in developing defensible management guidelines.

The North Cascades Ecosystem (NCE) in Washington State is one of 6 grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) recovery zones in the lower 48 states and is contiguous with the grizzly bear population of south central British Columbia (BC). Fewer than 20 grizzly bears are estimated to remain in the NCE. Observations and verified grizzly bear sign are rare, and public knowledge of grizzly bears is very limited. Ideally, perceptions and attitudes toward grizzly bears should be based on accurate information so residents can make well informed decisions and comments regarding grizzly bear recovery. The objective of the Grizzly Bear Outreach Project (GBOP) is to address public concerns and provide factual information about grizzly bear ecology and behavior, sanitation and safety in bear country, and policies associated with the recovery process. The GBOP strives to engage community members in a process of education that targets people living, recreating, and working in the NCE. The approach includes community perceptions analyses, one-on-one meetings, small group meetings, coalition activities, and the development and distribution of associated educational resources (e.g., brochure, fact sheets, slide show, web site). Current activities also include an evaluation of project effectiveness that consists of baseline and follow-up telephone surveys with randomly selected NCE residents, quarterly telephone interviews with key informants, and content analysis of local newspapers and government and organization communications. The GBOP was initiated in April 2002 in the northeastern NCE and expanded to the northwestern NCE in September 2003. In this paper we describe our efforts and the philosophy behind the GBOP.