We conducted an experiment to test competing hypotheses regarding the effects of hunting on American black bear (Ursus americanus) demographic parameters. Specifically, we tested for the existence and the relative influence of sexually selected infanticide (SSI) and density dependence in regulating demographic parameters. We monitored 290 bears in 2 hunted areas and an adjoining unhunted area in the boreal forest of Alberta, Canada, during a 4-year study (2002–2005). We manipulated the areas using a modified before–after control–impact (BACI) design whereby bait sites for hunting were closed in 1 of the 2 hunted areas in years 3 and 4 and adult males in the unhunted area were removed in year 3. Results did not support a significant influence of SSI, if it occurs, on population parameters compared with the effects of density dependence. We found lower cub survival (66% versus 83%) and older age of first reproduction in the unhunted, higher-density area than in the lower-density, hunted area. We found no difference in body condition of males and females between areas, suggesting that if SSI restricted females to suboptimal areas, the effect was not strong enough to affect reproduction. We did not detect an influx of new males or a change in cub survival after removal of adult males from the unhunted area (66% before versus 73% after). Our results suggest that SSI does not affect the population growth rate of hunted black bear populations, and that target hunting quotas do not require including potential effects of SSI in population projections. However, SSI should be considered in unhunted or lightly hunted populations approaching carrying capacity (K). We advocate the inclusion of density dependence in population projection models for bear populations. However, for specific cases where harvesting maintains a population size well below K, density-dependent effects are predicted to be negligible due to the non-linear relationship between demographic parameters and density.

We hypothesized that there would be minimal dietary overlap between sympatric brown bears (Ursus arctos) and American black bears (U. americanus) relative to salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) utilization when alternative foods (e.g., fruits) are abundant. To maximize the chance that we would reject this hypothesis, we examined the diets of brown and black bears known to have visited salmon streams. Species, sex, and individual identification of bears visiting salmon streams were determined by DNA analysis of hair and feces collected in 2002–2004 along those streams. Diets were estimated from fecal residues and stable isotope analyses of hair. Assimilated diets of brown bears were 66.0% (SD  =  16.7%) salmon, 13.9% (SD  =  7.5%) terrestrial animal matter, and 20.1% (SD  =  17.2%) plant matter. Assimilated diets of black bears were 8.0% (SD  =  5.4%) salmon, 8.4% (SD  =  9.7%) terrestrial animal matter, and 83.6% (SD  =  7.7%) plant matter. Male and female brown bears did not differ in either the proportion of dietary salmon, terrestrial animal matter, or plant matter. The relative amounts of fruit residues in the feces of brown bears (87.0%, SD  =  15.2%) and black bears (91.8%, SD  =  7.2%) did not differ. Both sexes of brown bears visited salmon streams and consumed significant amounts of salmon, but only male American black bears visited streams and then consumed minimal amounts of salmon. Thus, brown bears were largely carnivorous and black bears were largely herbivorous and frugivorous. This reduced dietary overlap relative to salmon and fruit use is understandable in light of the concentrated, defendable nature of salmon in small streams, the widely dispersed, non-defendable nature of abundant fruits, the dominance of brown over black bears, the higher energy requirement of the larger brown bear, and, therefore, the differing ability of the species to efficiently exploit different food resources.

We analyzed phylogenetic relationships of brown bear (Ursus arctos) maternal lineages in Finland using nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial control region of 135 individuals. A total of 14 haplotypes, which belong to 2 haplogroups, were characterized. Haplogroup I is spread across the entire bear range, whereas haplogroup D is restricted to the southeastern part of the country. Most unconventional was the concentration of haplotype C in a small territory in central Finland, which is explained by the natal philopatry of bears that descended from one or more translocated females. Analysis of Finnish brown bear haplotypes together with 15 European eastern lineage haplotypes revealed that the Romanian–Slovakian region was probably an important refuge (or route) for recolonization of Finland by brown bears after the last ice age.

The goals of this study were to determine digestibility of a bamboo diet by giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and to evaluate potential internal markers (naturally occurring markers in their diet) for their ability to estimate fecal output and digestibility. Digestibility predictions using internal markers were based on either feed offered or feed consumed. Two giant pandas were used in 1-, 2-, and 3-day digestibility trials with total collection of feces. In the 3-day trial, animals were fed 100% bamboo with no dietary supplements. In all other trials, supplements were included in addition to bamboo. The 3 internal markers chosen for evaluation were acid insoluble ash (AIA), acid detergent lignin (ADL), and acid detergent insoluble nitrogen (ADIN). Results from digestibility trials indicated that apparent nutrient digestibility could be determined with no differences (P > 0.05) between pandas. Six apparent dry matter (DM) digestibility values ranged from 6.9 to 38.5%. Apparent DM digestibility for the male and female panda in the unsupplemented (3-day) trial were 6.9 and 12.4%, respectively. Among the 3 potential internal markers evaluated, AIA more accurately predicted fecal output (r  =  0.99; P < 0.01) than ADL (r  =  0.84; P < 0.02) or ADIN (r  =  0.85; P < 0.02). Calculations using AIA and feed consumed more accurately predicted nutrient digestibility than did feed offered calculations for all 3 internal markers. Apparent crude protein (CP) digestibility was 33.8% and was predicted by AIA and feed consumed calculations to be 35.5% (r  =  0.88; P  =  0.009). Acid insoluble ash and feed consumed calculations predicted fiber digestibility to be 35.1% compared to apparent fiber digestibility (31.8%; r  =  0.97, P < 0.001). Methods and data presented in this study may be used to predict nutrient digestibility in wild pandas in their native habitat.

Food availability influences movements, population dynamics, and harvest of black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Appalachian Mountains. We compared combinations of hard and soft mast indices to black bear non-hunting mortalities in West Virginia, USA, 1980–2004. Mast conditions were inversely related to non-hunting black bear mortalities. We constructed regression equations to predict non-hunting bear mortalities and used Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) to compare fit of each model to the data. Oak (Quercus spp.; ΔAIC_c  =  0.000), oak hickory (Carya spp.; ΔAIC_c  =  0.251), all hard mast (ΔAICc  =  6.41), and hard mast black cherry (Prunus serotina; ΔAIC_c  =  7.06) were considered the best competing models for explaining non-hunting black bear mortalities. Managers may use this data to help explain and predict the importance of hard mast conditions on non-hunting black bear mortalities.

The endangered brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in Greece is in urgent need of effective protection and management; that management should be based on information that is both reliable and quickly attained. After observing bears marking and rubbing on power poles, we initiated a study to collect information on this behavior and develop an effective method for documenting bear presence in Greece. Thirty-nine power poles in the main study area were fitted with barbed wire and inspected monthly for a year. The information and experience gained in the main study area was used to survey 3 additional areas, covering a representative sample of the species distribution in the country. Power pole-related behaviors were associated with mud smears, hair deposits, and bite and claw marks (hereafter referred to as marks). Tracks and scats also have been used to document the presence of brown bears in Greece, but fewer of these were found in all areas surveyed. Deterioration rate of marks was slower than that of tracks and scats. Our results suggest that power pole-related behavior is not a localized phenomenon. A monitoring scheme in Greece documenting the presence of the species that would include the regular inspection of power poles could take advantage of the higher abundance and slower deterioration rate of power pole-related signs and be time efficient and easily staffed by volunteers. The ability to identify individual bears through genetic analysis of hair collected from power poles is an additional advantage of this approach.

Little is known about the effects of prescribed burning on American black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Southeastern Coastal Plain. In Florida, Eglin Air Force Base is home to 1 of 8 relatively disjunct populations of black bears (U. a. floridanus) in the state. Prescribed burning has been used on Eglin since the late 1980s to reduce the dense oak (Quercus spp.) midstory that occupies the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)–wiregrass (Aristida beyrichiana) community. We studied black bear habitat use during 1994–96 to determine if temporal and spatial relationships existed between prescribed fire and black bear habitat use from 9 years of burning data. Within all habitat types, our results showed that black bears used unburned areas more than burned areas, both annually and seasonally. Among burned areas, black bear use was greatest in 3- and ≥5-year-old burns, both annually and seasonally, for most habitat types. Our results are consistent with published reports on timing of peak soft mast production following prescribed fire, and we conclude that higher use of particular burn ages was related to production of several soft-mast species. We suggest that longer burning cycles be applied within and adjacent to important habitats, like riparian zones, in the Southeastern Coastal Plain. Planning for juxtaposition of various successional post-fire stages is the best approach for managing habitats to maintain cover and availability of primary bear foods and effectively minimize the area needed to satisfy the needs of black bears.

We surveyed 52 jurisdictions across continental North America to gather comparative information on management strategies for American black bear (Ursus americanus) for the late 1980s and the start of the 21^st century. Specifically, we asked about: population estimates and targets, harvest objectives and hunting methods (spring hunt, use of bait, use of dogs), hunter and harvest data, and trends in human–bear conflicts. Most population estimates were derived through a subjective process of extrapolation and expert opinion and were used as the basis for adjusting management practices. In 17 jurisdictions that had spring hunts, estimated black bear populations increased by 6%, compared to a 51% increase in the 21 jurisdictions with fall-only seasons. Estimated populations increased by 87% in the 14 jurisdictions without hunting seasons. Another 10 jurisdictions had reports of occasional transient bears but no resident population. Jurisdictions with liberal hunting regimes tended to maintain human–bear conflict at stable levels, whereas those with more restrictive regimes appeared to experience a growing trend. We suggest that the goal of management should be to balance the goals of maintaining viable black bear populations, safeguarding human welfare and property, and satisfying the needs of stakeholders in a cost-effective manner. Hunting and proactive education and awareness programs are keys to achieving that balance. By setting appropriate harvest objectives and hunting methods to regulate the density and distribution of black bears, in conjunction with measures to deter bears from associating people and dwellings with food, agencies should be better able to manage for human–bear conflict in the 21^st century.

As in the rest of their range in Southern Asia, brown bears (Ursus arctos) are poorly studied in Pakistan. Historically, brown bears occupied almost the entire range of the mountains of northern Pakistan, approximately 150,000 km². Their populations are declining and have gone extinct from some areas in the past 50 years. Brown bears are now distributed over 3 major mountain ranges and 4 intermountain highlands. The bears' range in Pakistan falls under 3 administrative divisions, and, as wildlife management is a provincial subject in Pakistan, these administrative divisions have separate governing legislation. Bears are legally protected, however, and recently designated as critically endangered in IUCN's Red List of Mammals of Pakistan. Seven populations probably persist in the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush ranges; the Deosai Plateau in western Himalaya hosts the only stable population. The sizes of these populations do not exceed 20 individuals, except for Deosai National Park, where 43 bears were counted in 2006. Seven national parks and many wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves, which provide legal protection to bears, have been established in the northern mountains of Pakistan. Populations in Pakistan are probably connected to those in India (to the east), China (to the north), and Afghanistan (to the west). Growing human population, expanding infrastructure, increasing number of livestock, and increasing dependency on natural resources, particularly alpine pastures, are key threats. Poaching for its commercial parts and for cubs, and growing unmanaged tourism also contribute to population decline. The population has become conservation dependent, and actions like effective management of protected areas, better management of natural resources, and environmental education need immediate attention.

We conducted informal interviews with villagers and park and buffer zone personnel in protected areas of Nepal presumed to contain Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) during 19 September–10 November 2005. Based on these interviews, we assessed the presence and persistence of this species in Nepal. We conducted interviews in Shey Phoksundo National Park, Langtang National Park, Shivapuri National Park, the Junbesi area (south of Sagarmatha National Park), and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area. Bears were documented in all 5 areas; annual bear sightings reportedly increased in Junbesi and the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area; sighting frequency remained similar in the other areas. The extent of human–bear conflicts varied markedly between sites; in all but Langtang National Park, which attributed crop loss to other wildlife, bears were observed raiding corn crops during summer and early fall. Recent bear attacks on humans were reported from Junbesi and Langtang National Park and occurred in villages as well as in the surrounding forest. The Maoist insurgency has had both positive and negative implications for wildlife. Insurgents intimidated outsiders who were responsible for most poaching. However, the presence of Maoists resulted in the departure of personnel associated with conservation and protection, leaving no staff to monitor or oversee wildlife and habitat preservation. Additional surveys are needed to further knowledge of bear distribution as well as research on bear–habitat relations. Understanding bear ecology and developing adaptive management in the protected areas may help alleviate conflicts between bears and humans, thus maintaining or increasing their ability to coexist. However, loss of regulatory control due to the insurgency may make any attempts to monitor and conserve wildlife populations ineffectual.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service has proposed to delist the Yellowstone grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) as a distinct population segment, pursuant to the 1996 Distinct Population Segment Policy, on grounds that these bears have achieved their recovery goals. In this paper I discuss the Distinct Population Segment Policy and suggest that it does not provide a workable basis for classifying populations for purposes of delisting or down listing decisions, and I review aspects of the Yellowstone grizzly bear delisting decision.

Tatjana Rosen (previous article) recommends reforms to the policy outlining how distinct population segments (DPSs) are defined and then objects because the proposed DPS for delisting grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) does not mesh with her recommendations. The purpose of the Endangered Species Act (ESA; 16 US Code 1531–1544) is to prevent the extinction of species, subspecies, and distinct population segments (DPSs) of imperiled plants and animals, not to keep species perpetually listed. Policies designed to implement the ESA should be judged based on their contribution to the recovery of taxa and DPSs. In response to management efforts by state and federal agencies assisted by conservation groups, grizzly bears in the GYE have expanded in range and numbers and have exceeded recovery criteria established in the Recovery Plan. Although the current DPS policy may not be the perfect tool for listing or delisting in all circumstances, the DPS proposed for delisting Yellowstone's grizzlies meshes well with the intent of the ESA. Rosen's suggested revisions would lead to perpetual listing in areas where recovery has occurred and would be inconsistent with the purpose of the ESA to delist taxa and DPSs following recovery. In the GYE, and elsewhere south of Canada, grizzly bears will probably always remain a conservation-reliant species; this does not mean that they require or will benefit from continued listing when conservation efforts have succeeded in reaching recovery targets and regulatory mechanisms are in place to nurture the recovery.

Andean (spectacled) bears (Tremarctos ornatus) are threatened across most of their range in the Andes. To date no field-based density estimations are available for this species. We present a preliminary estimate of the density of this species in the Greater Madidi Landscape using standard camera-trapping methods and capture–recapture analysis. We photographed 3 individually recognizable Andean bears in a 17.6 km² study area spanning 4 adjacent high elevation humid Andean valleys during August–September 2004. Capture–recapture statistics estimated an abundance of 3 bears; plausible geographic buffers yielded density estimates of 4.4 or 6 bears/100 km². We recommend that future camera-trapping studies on this species sample larger areas over longer periods and use 3 camera trap units at each station.

We sequenced part of the mitochondrial control region of 2 Himalayan Ursus arctos isabellinus individuals and compared it with that of other U. arctos. Results indicate that the valid allopatric subspecies U. a. isabellinus represents an ancient clade and includes the Gobi bear of Mongolia as a relict population.