Wild poinsettia (Euphorbia heterophylla L.) is a troublesome broadleaf weed in grain production areas in South America. Herbicide resistance to multiple sites of action has been documented in this species, including protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) inhibitors. We investigated the physiological and molecular bases for PPO-inhibitor resistance in a E. heterophylla population (R_PPO) from Southern Brazil. Whole-plant dose–response experiments revealed a cross-resistance profile to three different chemical groups of PPO inhibitors. Based on dose–response parameters, R_PPO was resistant to lactofen (47.7-fold), saflufenacil (8.6-fold), and pyraflufen-ethyl (3.5-fold). Twenty-four hours after lactofen treatment (120 g ha^–1) POST, R_PPO accumulated 27 times less protoporphyrin than the susceptible population (S_PPO). In addition, R_PPO generated 5 and 4.5 times less hydrogen peroxide and superoxide than S_PPO, respectively. The chloroplast PPO (PPO1) sequences were identical between the two populations, whereas 35 single-nucleotide polymorphisms were found for the mitochondrial PPO (PPO2). Based on protein homology modeling, the Arg-128-Leu (homologous to Arg-98-Leu in common ragweed [Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.] was the only one located near the catalytic site, also in a conserved region of PPO2. The cytochrome P450 monooxygenase inhibitor malathion did not reverse resistance to lactofen in R_PPO, and both populations showed similar levels of PPO1 and PPO2 expression, suggesting that metabolic resistance and PPO overexpression are unlikely. This is the first report of an Arg-128-Leu mutation in PPO2 conferring cross-resistance to PPO inhibitors in E. heterophylla.

The developmental status of perennial weeds such as rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea L.) can influence herbicide absorption and translocation. Differential efficacy between fall and spring applications suggests vernalization impacts herbicide absorption and translocation in other perennial asters. Clopyralid and aminopyralid absorption and translocation were quantified in nonvernalized and vernalized plants following application of ¹⁴C-labeled herbicides 2, 4, 8, 24, and 72 h after treatment. Less ¹⁴C clopyralid was absorbed, and at a slower rate, in vernalized plants. Movement out of the treated leaf was slower, with ¹⁴C clopyralid translocating more rapidly than ¹⁴C aminopyralid. More ¹⁴C moved to the roots in nonvernalized plants compared with vernalized plants, regardless of herbicide. Increased translocation to belowground survival structures is needed for effective control of C. juncea.

The WSSA Group 15 (HRAC Group K₃) herbicide flufenacet is a key compound in weed resistance management, primarily used for PRE control of grass weeds in winter cereal–based crop rotations in Europe. Although resistance to compounds of its mechanism of action (inhibition of the synthesis of very-long-chain fatty acids) generally evolves slowly, reduced flufenacet efficacy due to enhanced glutathione transferase (GST) activity has been described in several blackgrass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.) populations. The present study aimed to better understand of the mechanism of flufenacet detoxification in A. myosuroides. Therefore, we characterized four A. myosuroides populations with different levels of flufenacet sensitivity. Flufenacet degradation was significantly slowed down in a sensitive population and a population with reduced flufenacet sensitivity by the use of the GST inhibitors tridiphane and ethacrynic acid at sublethal rates. Finally, an RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) study with the four A. myosuroides populations was conducted. In total, six differentially expressed GSTs and nine transcription factors as well as a keto-acyl-CoA reductase involved in the biosynthesis of very-long-chain fatty acids were identified as candidate genes among a set of 319 significantly more highly expressed gene-associated contigs. Among a set of 218 contigs with significantly lower expression levels, receptor kinase activity was the most frequent annotation. In summary, the likely GST-mediated reduction in sensitivity evolves in A. myosuroides at a slow rate and can partially be reversed by an interaction between flufenacet and the GST inhibitors tridiphane and ethacrynic acid. This provides further evidence for enhanced GST activity as a key mechanism in flufenacet resistance in A. myosuroides and supports the hypothesis that the six differentially expressed GSTs detected in the present RNA-seq study are potentially involved in flufenacet resistance.

Annual sedge (Cyperus compressus L.) populations with resistance to halosulfuron were identified in turfgrass at two new locations in Georgia. Research was conducted to evaluate (1) resistance levels to two acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors, (2) ALS enzyme susceptibility, (3) genetic differences associated with resistance, and (4) differential levels of ALS gene expression in these biotypes. In dose–response experiments, the biotypes were >160 times resistant to halosulfuron but only 12 times more resistant to imazaquin compared with a susceptible biotype. In vitro enzyme assays indicated that resistant (R) biotypes required 6.1-fold greater concentrations of imazaquin to reduce ALS activity 50% compared with the susceptible (S) biotype. Both R biotypes had a similar Pro-197-Ser amino acid substitution in the ALS gene that confers resistance to sulfonylureas. Compared with the S biotype, R biotypes had 4.4 times higher ALS gene expression than the S biotype. No differences in gene copy number were found between any biotypes for the ALS gene. Overall, ALS-resistant C. compressus selected by halosulfuron use in turfgrass may be exhibiting partial susceptibility to imazaquin but complete resistance to sulfonylureas. Differential levels of susceptibility to ALS inhibitors for these biotypes are associated with the Pro-197-Ser substitution and enhanced expression of the ALS gene.

Knowledge of crop–weed interference effects on weed biology along with yield penalties can be used for the development of integrated weed management (IWM) tactics. Nevertheless, little is known about the beneficial effects of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] density, an important aspect of IWM, on late Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) establishment time. Two field experiments were conducted in 2014 and 2015 to investigate how various soybean densities and A. palmeri establishment timings in weeks after crop emergence (WAE) affect height, biomass, and seed production of the weed but also crop yield in drill-seeded soybean. Soybean density had a significant impact on dry weight and seed production of A. palmeri that established within the first 2 wk of crop emergence, but not for establishment timings of the weed 4 wk and later in relation to crop emergence. Differential performance of A. palmeri gender was observed, regarding greater biomass production of female than male plants under crop presence, and merits further investigation. Grain yield reductions were recorded at earlier A. palmeri establishment timings (i.e., 0 and 1 WAE) compared with 8 WAE establishment timing in 2014 and 2015. High soybean densities resulted in greater soybean yields compared with low soybean density, but no grain yield benefits were observed between medium and high soybean densities. Crop budget analysis revealed the benefits of moderate seeding rate (i.e., 250, 000 seeds ha^–1) increases in comparison to lower (i.e., 125,000 seeds ha^–1) or high (i.e., 400,000 seeds ha^–1) on crop revenue, net income returns, and breakeven price. Earlier A. palmeri establishment timings (i.e., 0, 1, and 2 WAE) resulted in lower crop revenue and net income returns compared with later establishment timings of the weed.

Tillage regimes can influence weed population dynamics and, consequently, the choice of appropriate weed management practices. Studies were conducted in 2016 and 2017 in a long-term (36-yr) grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench ssp. bicolor] experiment at Texas A&M University, College Station, to determine the impact of long-term no-till (NT) and conventional till (CT) systems on weed species dynamics. Higher densities of johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.], prostrate spurge [Chamaesyce humistrata (Engelm. ex A. Gray) Small], waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer], and henbit (Lamium amplexicaule L.) were recorded in the NT system compared with the CT system. Further, the NT system showed greater weed diversity (Shannon-Wiener index, H = 0.8) and species richness (S = 6.2), compared with the CT system (H = 0.6, S = 4.2). Seedling emergence of some dominant weed species was also delayed in the NT system. In the CT system, 50% emergence of S. halepense (8.5 C base temperature) and waterhemp (10 C base temperature) occurred at 59 and 63 growing degree days (GDD), respectively, whereas 68 and 75 GDD, respectively, were required in the NT system. Further, a greater proportion (61%) of the viable seedbank was present at the top 5 cm of the soil in the NT system compared with the CT system (46%). Overall, findings from this 36-yr-long tillage experiment have revealed that the NT system had greater weed densities (especially of the perennial weed S. halepense) and a high proportion of weed seeds (particularly small-seeded annuals) on the topsoil layer, corroborating some earlier reports that were based on short-term investigations. Findings indicate that growers transitioning to NT systems should be mindful of potential shifts in weed species dominance and develop appropriate management tactics.

Weedy rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea Rosh.) is an emerging weed of California rice (Oryza sativa L.) that has potential to cause large yield losses. Early detection of weedy rice in the field is ideal to effectively control and prevent the spread of this weed. However, it is difficult to differentiate weedy rice from cultivated rice during early growth stages due to the close genetic and phenotypic relatedness of cultivated rice and weedy rice. The objective of this study is to examine phenotypic variation in weedy rice biotypes from California and to identify traits that could be used to visually identify weedy rice infestations at early growth stages for effective management. Greenhouse experiments were conducted in 2017 and 2018 using five phenotypically distinct biotypes of weedy rice found in California, along with diverse cultivated, weedy, and wild rice types in a randomized complete block design. We measured variation for 13 phenotypic traits associated with weedy rice and conducted principal component analysis and factor analysis to identify important weedy traits. Most weedy rice individuals within a biotype clustered together by phenotypic similarity. Pericarp color, hull color, chlorophyll content, grain length, plant height, leaf pubescence, collar color, and leaf sheath color account for most of the observed variation. California weedy rice biotypes are phenotypically distinct from wild rice and from weedy rice from the southern United States in their combinations of seed phenotypes and vegetative characteristics. In comparison with the locally grown temperate japonica cultivars, California weedy rice tends to be taller, with lower chlorophyll content and a red pericarp. Weedy rice biotypes vary in seed shattering and seed dormancy. For weedy rice management, plant height and chlorophyll content are distinct traits that could be used to differentiate weedy rice from the majority of cultivated rice varieties in California during vegetative stages of rice growth.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of fertilizer placement on the growth of eclipta [Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.] and evaluate its interference with container-grown ornamental plants, including Japanese boxwood (Buxus microphylla Siebold & Zucc.) and ligustrum (Ligustrum lucidum W.T. Aiton). Results indicated that subdressing reduced E. prostrata shoot weight by 28%, 42%, and 46% at depths of 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 cm, respectively, in comparison with a topdressed fertilizer treatment (a standard industry practice). Presence of E. prostrata reduced the growth of both ornamental species. Ligustrum shoot weight decreased as subdressing depth increased, while boxwood growth was most notably reduced at the 7.5-cm depth in comparison with topdressed containers. Overall, results indicated that subdressing may be an effective weed management strategy, but subdressing depth needs to be based on initial liner size to prevent possibly delays in production time.

Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of various environmental factors and burial depth on germination and seedling emergence of common beggar's-tick [Bidens alba (L.) DC.] seeds at two different stages of afterripening. Mature B. alba seeds were stored at 4 C for 3 to 5 mo (new seed lot) and 13 to 15 mo (old seed lot) until experiment initiation. Germination exponentially decreased with increasing moisture stress. Germination rate decreased from 87 ± 2.9% to 13 ± 6.1% as osmotic potential decreased from 0 to –0.5 MPa and was completely inhibited at osmotic potentials below –0.83 MPa. A large portion of the new seeds tested positively photoblastic, but seeds that had afterripened for 1 additional year were partially desensitized to the light requirement. New and old seeds still germinated to a greater percentage in the presence of light than under continuous dark at temperatures ranging from 15 to 35 C. Both new and old seeds germinated over a range of temperatures from 5 to 35 C, but the optimum temperatures for germination was 15 to 30 C in the presence of light. Regardless of seed lot, seedling emergence was the greatest when seeds were sown at the soil surface. Seedling emergence was abruptly reduced when burial depth was 1 cm or greater. Based on these results, we conclude that shallow cultivation could effectively suppress this population of B. alba from emerging when incorporated into an integrated control strategy. The information obtained in this research identifies some important factors that facilitate the widespread presence of B. alba in Florida and may contribute to weed management programs.

Before any late-season weed control operations are planned to manage herbicide-resistant weeds, it is essential to evaluate the plants' maturity and shattering potential. Our goal was to assess the seed-shattering phenology of common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) using pollination bags as seed traps. A secondary goal was to evaluate the efficiency of these traps. Trials were conducted from 2014 to 2017 at two locations in eastern Canada (Saint-Jeansur-Richelieu, QC, and Harrow, ON). At each location, three adjacent fields were seeded with spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], or corn (Zea mays L.). Each field was divided into four replicate blocks that included two treatment plots with 5 weeds m^–2 planted on the same date as the crop or when crop plants had two leaves (early or late emergence). To evaluate shattering in time, the experiment included up to 12 weekly collection dates (subplots). In each subplot, weeds were individually bagged at flowering (using mesh bags) until collection, when the number and viability of shattered and retained seeds per plant was recorded. Weather data as well as crop and weed stages were recorded. The effect of the pollen bags on seed retrieval and viability was evaluated by installing open and closed bags in corn and uncropped (bare) plots at a single location. Ambrosia artemisiifolia seed biomass was equivalent or higher in closed bags, and seed viability was equivalent or slightly reduced. No seeds were produced before harvest in spring wheat, as dispersal started in September. The percentage of seeds retained on the plant decreased linearly (1 site-year) or followed a logistic equation (4 site-years) with day of year or growing degree days. Dispersal in time was similar between early- and late-emerging weeds and similar in both corn and soybean. On average, more than 50% of A. artemisiifolia seeds were dispersed before harvest in corn and soybean.

Scotch broom [Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link] is a large nonnative, leguminous shrub that threatens native plant communities by rapidly invading recently disturbed sites, competing vigorously for soil water and nutrients, and imparting soil legacy effects that inhibit native plants. In the Pacific Northwest, logging debris retention after forest harvesting prevents or slows C. scoparius invasions. A series of studies were conducted to determine potential mechanisms by which logging debris modifies the light environment to limit germination and growth of C. scoparius. In laboratory studies, seed germination did not vary significantly (P > 0.05): (1) between presence and absence of light for several temperature regimes, (2) when exposed to red (660-nm wavelength) versus far-red (730-nm wavelength) light, and (3) across a range of red/far-red light (R/FR) ratios. These results indicate that modification of the light environment by logging debris or plant canopies has little or no influence on C. scoparius germination. In a study to simulate effects of variable mass of logging debris, “heavy” debris (2 kg m^–2) caused biologically relevant reductions in photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and R/FR relative to conditions under “light” debris (1 kg m^–2). Cytisus scoparius germination did not differ significantly between simulated heavy and light debris; however, values of seedling root and shoot biomass under heavy debris were 16% and 71% of those observed under light debris, respectively. These results indicate that heavy debris limits biomass of C. scoparius seedlings, particularly roots, by reducing both PPFD and R/FR, which increases seedling vulnerability to summer drought or other stressors. Retention of heavy logging debris after forest harvesting has potential application on sites likely to be invaded by C. scoparius, as well as those sites with seedbanks containing C. scoparius.

Current recommendations for the control of glyphosate-resistant horseweed [Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist var. canadensis] in soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] consist of comprehensive herbicide programs, which often include herbicide applications outside the soybean growing season. Integration of cover crops with herbicides could potentially improve C. canadensis control and allow for a reduction in herbicide inputs. Two separate field studies were conducted from 2016 through 2018 with the objectives of: (1) determining the effect of planting date and seeding rate of a cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) cover crop on C. canadensis population density and control in the subsequent soybean crop; and (2) determining whether the cover crop could replace a fall herbicide treatment or allow for a reduction in the use of spring-applied residual herbicides. There was no effect of rye planting date, late September versus late October, on C. canadensis density in either study. In 2016 to 2017, C. canadensis density was greater in the absence of a rye cover crop in both studies, but otherwise not affected by seeding rates of 50 versus 100 kg ha^–1. In the 2017 to 2018 season, the presence of rye resulted in an increased C. canadensis density in the spring residual herbicide study (Study I), and had no effect in the fall herbicide study (Study II). Conyza canadensis densities were lowest in the treatments where a comprehensive spring residual or fall herbicide treatment had been applied, averaged over rye planting date and seeding rate. Earlier-planted rye at a higher seeding rate produced the most biomass but did not result in lower C. canadensis densities. These results suggest that cereal rye planted at a density of 50 kg ha^–1 as a cover crop before no-till soybeans may be sufficient to reduce glyphosate-resistant C. canadensis plant density, but cannot be relied upon to reduce the need for fall herbicide treatments and spring residual programs.

Intensified cover-cropping practices are increasingly viewed as a herbicide-resistance management tool but clear distinction between reactive and proactive resistance management performance targets is needed. We evaluated two proactive performance targets for integrating cover-cropping tactics, including (1) facilitation of reduced herbicide inputs and (2) reduced herbicide selection pressure. We conducted corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] field experiments in Pennsylvania and Delaware using synthetic weed seedbanks of horseweed [Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist] and smooth pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus L.) to assess winter and summer annual population dynamics, respectively. The effect of alternative cover crops was evaluated across a range of herbicide inputs. Cover crop biomass production ranged from 2,000 to 8,500 kg ha^-1 in corn and 3,000 to 5,500 kg ha^-1 in soybean. Experimental results demonstrated that herbicide-based tactics were the primary drivers of total weed biomass production, with cover-cropping tactics providing an additive weed-suppression benefit. Substitution of cover crops for PRE or POST herbicide programs did not reduce total weed control levels or cash crop yields but did result in lower net returns due to higher input costs. Cover-cropping tactics significantly reduced C. canadensis populations in three of four cover crop treatments and decreased the number of large rosettes (>7.6-cm diameter) at the time of preplant herbicide exposure. Substitution of cover crops for PRE herbicides resulted in increased selection pressure on POST herbicides, but reduced the number of large individuals (>10 cm) at POST applications. Collectively, our findings suggest that cover crops can reduce the intensity of selection pressure on POST herbicides, but the magnitude of the effect varies based on weed life-history traits. Additional work is needed to describe proactive resistance management concepts and performance targets for integrating cover crops so producers can apply these concepts in site-specific, within-field management practices.

Spot spraying POST herbicides is an effective approach to reduce herbicide input and weed control cost. Machine vision detection of grass or grass-like weeds in turfgrass systems is a challenging task due to the similarity in plant morphology. In this work, we explored the feasibility of using image classification with deep convolutional neural networks (DCNN), including AlexNet, GoogLeNet, and VGGNet, for detection of crabgrass species (Digitaria spp.), doveweed [Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan], dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum Poir.), and tropical signalgrass [Urochloa distachya (L.) T.Q. Nguyen] in bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.]. VGGNet generally outperformed AlexNet and GoogLeNet in detecting selected grassy weeds. For detection of P. dilatatum, VGGNet achieved high F1 scores (≥0.97) and recall values (≥0.99). A single VGGNet model exhibited high F1 scores (≥0.93) and recall values (1.00) that reliably detected Digitaria spp., M. nudiflora, P. dilatatum, and U. distachya. Low weed density reduced the recall values of AlexNet at detecting all weed species and GoogLeNet at detecting Digitaria spp. In comparison, VGGNet achieved excellent performances (overall accuracy = 1.00) at detecting all weed species in both high and low weed-density scenarios. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using DCNN for detection of grass or grass-like weeds in turfgrass systems.