Survival of hand-reared gamebirds is reported to be poor after release into the wild. One reason for the high mortality is assumed to be nutritional maladaptation of hand-reared birds to natural foods. In captivity, birds are usually fed commercial poultry foods, which are originally meant for chickens. We carried out a feeding trial to examine the importance of invertebrates and animal protein on the growth and development of temperature regulation in grey partridge Perdix perdix chicks. Three diet groups were established: invertebrate-rich, low-invertebrate, and fish groups. Invertebrate food consisted of fly (Calliphora) larvae and ant (Formicoidea) pupae, and the fish diet of fresh vendace Coregonus albula and smelt Osmerus eperlanus. Each diet group was provided with ad libitum plant food. Chicks were weighed every third day, their primaries were measured, and their cooling rate at 0°C was recorded. Chicks fed an invertebrate-rich diet were heavier than the other chicks, and their primaries developed earlier than the other chicks' feathers. Chicks fed a low-invertebrate or a fish diet cooled faster than chicks fed an invertebrate-rich diet. A wild brood was captured and 7-day-old wild chicks were examined as a reference group for the captive chicks. Results obtained from these chicks are in agreement with the results obtained from the chicks fed an invertebrate-rich diet. In conclusion, invertebrates are not replaceable by a fish diet like the one used in our study during the growth period of hand-reared grey partridges. Invertebrates should be included in the diet of hand-reared grey partridge chicks during their first weeks of life.

The Eurasian woodcock Scolopax rusticola is an important quarry species hunted all over its range. Some authors have reported local declines in both wintering and breeding woodcock numbers. In order to investigate whether these possible declines are the result of a negative trend in survival, we analysed 3,312 recoveries of 15,839 woodcocks ringed in France during 14 consecutive winters (1984/85–1997/98). We distinguished between winter (October–February) and summer (March–September) recoveries in order to estimate survival and recovery rate separately for each period because selective pressures during these two periods are likely to be different. Survival varied according to year during both winter and summer. Winter survival probability covaried positively with mean winter nocturnal temperature and ranged from 0.74 (SE = 0.057) during the winter of 1985/86 to 0.83 (SE = 0.042) during the winter of 1994/95. Mortality of first-year birds was 22% higher than that of adults in any year. Results from a second analysis in which we compared survival of birds ringed during 1991–1997 in the three main woodcock wintering areas along the French Atlantic coast suggested a threshold effect of weather conditions. Mean winter survival covaried with temperature and rainfall mainly in the northernmost regions where weather conditions are more severe. We did not find any particular trend in survival probability that could explain the possible declines in woodcock numbers. However, the generally low adult annual survival, and the negative influence of stochastic events such as severe winter conditions might drive populations to a level from which it would be difficult to recover. Results of a two-age-class demographic model are discussed together with implications for management.

The importance of conserving wild populations of large carnivores in balance with local human interests has been recognised throughout the world. However, diverse human activities are in potential conflict with the conservation of large carnivore species. We discuss the role that hunters have in the management of three large carnivore species, the brown bear Ursus arctos, the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx and the wolf Canis lupus in the Carpathian Mountains in central Europe. We considered four different countries (i.e. Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine and Romania), comparing the status of large carnivore populations and the regulations of hunting activities. The situation appears to be generally consistent throughout the Carpathian region, although the degree of protection accorded to wolf varies most. Interactions between large carnivores and hunters are well rooted in the culture of local communities in the four countries considered. The large forested areas make the Carpathians an excellent environment for large carnivores, which here are favoured by low human population density. We underline the need for integration of hunting activities and scientific knowledge for future management practices.

The objective of our work was to provide allometric relationships between different body measurements and age of young leverets of European hare Lepus europaeus (less than two months old) for use in live-trapping studies. Five morphometric variables were measured to predict the age of leverets: body mass, skull length, skull width, hind foot length and ear length. The hares came from two rearing centres near Paris (France) and were handled in 1995 and 1996. Measurement repeatability of each variable was compared in a pilot study (N = 51 leverets) and the effect of rearing centre on the growth curve was tested for the first 30 days after birth. We used a complementary sample (N = 168 leverets) to establish a model of age determination using I-splines regression. The skull length was the best candidate variable based on measurement repeatability, comparability between the two rearing centres and goodness of fit. I-spline modelling has minimal underlying statistical assumptions. In addition, it provides easy-to-use and powerful plots of the relation between age and measurements, including confidence limits estimated by a bootstrap procedure.

The arctic island group of Svalbard has no native species of voles or lemmings, but the vole Microtus rossiaemeridionalis has been accidentally introduced. Mainly found in the region of the abandoned Russian mining town of Grumant, the vole has not been able to colonise larger parts of Svalbard. The food habits of arctic foxes Alopex lagopus were studied by collecting and analysing samples of scats from various sites in the region in 1996, including fresh scats from three litters. Hairs of voles were found in scats from all sites, but the proportion of voles in the diet of arctic foxes varied considerably. Overall, voles made up 13% of the diet by occurrence, but were insignificant in the diet of the three litters. Birds were the most important (79%) and reindeer carcasses the second most important food item (22%). Other estimates used gave less importance to voles (10 and 4%). Birds most often constituted the major part of a scat, voles less often. Pups from three litters had consumed 97% birds, with the proportion of alcids and gulls varying largely according to availability near the respective litter. The population of voles at Grumant was very low in 1996, but in other years it may grow to much higher numbers. However, a large proportion of the scats collected were old and reflected arctic fox diet over many years. Although arctic foxes at Grumant have gained access to a new food source, voles appear to be of minor importance in their diet.

In 1997, the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources began a restoration program intended to translocate 200 elk Cervus elaphus nelsoni per year over a nine-year period. Initially, the age structure of males in this restored elk population was heavily skewed toward the yearling age class. We examined the reproductive performance of this elk herd for two years. During 1998, the male:adult female ratio was 35:65 (corresponding to 54:100). In 1999, the male:adult female ratio was 45:62 (corresponding to 73:100). The proportion of yearling males declined from 89% in 1998 to 31% in 1999. We used radio telemetry to locate males and females during the rut and to document calf production. Calving rates during 1998 and 1999 were 53 and 92%, respectively. Post-release movements of adult cows (N = 22) to areas devoid of males averaged 21 km and ranged within 7–57 km. Temporary Allee effects may have been responsible for annual differences in calving rates. The calving season was 67 days when breeding was dominated by yearlings and 37 days when breeding was dominated by adults. A male age structure heavily skewed toward yearlings does not appear to limit population growth. Calving rates could be improved by reducing initial post-release wanderings of adult females. Distribution of potential mates may be more important to population growth rather than balanced sex ratios and age structures.

In Europe, roe deer Capreolus capreolus is one of the biggest mammal species killed in traffic, and the number of accidents seems to increase. The purpose of our paper is to point out the most important factors causing traffic killings and to suggest conservation measures that may reduce the number of roe deer killings in traffic. Our study is based on data including 115 roe deer killed in traffic at the Kalø estate in East Jutland, Denmark, during 1956–1985. No significant correlation was found between the number of traffic killings of roe deer and mean daily traffic, but the number of roe deer killed in traffic varied significantly over the seasons. The distribution pattern of roe deer/car collision sites was clumped. The risk of being killed in traffic was highest for young and old roe deer. Significantly more adult females, adult males and subadult males than expected were killed in traffic, and significantly more individuals were killed in years when most of the fields next to the roads were left unsown in winter. We suggest that the following measures be taken to prevent traffic killings: increasing areas with winter cereal or wintergreen fields, clearing the vegetation adjacent to roads and reducing car speed in high-risk areas.

During the last decade, losses of semi-domestic reindeer Rangifer tarandus have increased in central Norway. Natural mortality in a semi-domestic reindeer herd was studied by use of mortality sensing transmitters. From 15 April 1995 to 15 April 1996,135 of 612 animals equipped with radio collars were found dead. Adult females (>2 years old) suffered a mortality of 18.3%, of which 40.5% was due to predation. Yearlings suffered a yearly mortality of 20.2% of which 66.7% was due to predation. Calf mortality from 6 August 1995 to 15 April 1996 was 31.0%, of which 75.3% was due to predation. Predation by Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx was the predominant cause of death, with 39.3% of the total mortality. Accidents were the second most important cause of death, with 16.0% of the total mortality. Peaks in mortality were registered in September, November and January.

Many hypotheses have been raised to try explaining the failure of Fennoscandian arctic fox Alopex lagopus populations to recover following 60–70 years of protection. One of the most appealing hypotheses has been that they depend on scavenging the kills of ungulates made by large carnivores, mainly wolves Canis lupus, which have been absent for much of the 20th century. We examine this hypothesis using a variety of data from throughout the holarctic range of arctic foxes and conclude that there is little evidence for the importance of this food source - although it is an issue that needs to be examined in greater detail.