It is well established that parasites in the phylum Nematomorpha induce suicide behavior of their insect hosts to bring adult worms to the appropriate habitat for emergence. It is not well established, however, whether other nematomorph-induced behavioral alterations occur before worm emergence. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the effect of the nematomorph Paragordius varius on the calling behavior of the male house cricket Acheta domesticus. We hypothesized that cricket calling, an energetically expensive and risky behavior, would be a potential target for nematomorph-induced behavioral alterations. We assessed if and how infection with P. varius affects A. domesticus calling behavior and whether the presence of wings at time of exposure to P. varius influenced changes in calling behavior. We recorded the calling behavior of male A. domesticus over the course of their infection after exposure to P. various before or after wing development. Additionally, we assessed whether winged crickets were “callers” or “noncallers” before exposure. We found that regardless of cricket developmental stage (or age) at time of infection, infected crickets spent significantly less time calling than their uninfected counterparts but only during the later stages of infection. Developmental stage at infection did affect whether crickets became callers: when infected before wing development significantly more uninfected crickets initiated calling; there was no difference between infected and uninfected crickets when infected as winged adults. Infection was a factor in whether callers stopped calling, with more infected crickets ceasing to call than uninfected crickets. This is the first study to show that infection with nematomorphs affects calling behavior of their insect host. Cricket calling behavior is immensely complex and although it was difficult to elucidate the adaptive nature of these parasite-induced behavioral changes, this study lays the groundwork for future studies to begin teasing out the factors that will help make the determination between side effect of infection or parasite/host adaptation.

The bopyrid isopod Probopyrus pandalicola is a hematophagous ectoparasite that sexually sterilizes some palaemonid shrimps, including female daggerblade grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio. The reproduction of parasitic isopods is thought to occur synchronously with host molting because the brood would be unsuccessful if molting occurred before the larvae were free swimming. Temperature affects the length of the molting cycle of shrimp, and therefore may also affect the incubation time of isopod broods. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of temperature on brood development of the parasite and on the degree of synchronization with the molting of its host. Parasitized P. pugio were monitored daily at 2 experimental temperatures, 23 and 15 C, in temperature-controlled chambers for the duration of a full parasite reproductive cycle. Developmental stage was determined by the visible coloration of the brood through the exoskeleton of the host, and was designated as egg, embryo I, embryo II, or epicaridium larvae. Temperature significantly affected median brood incubation time, which was only 11 days at 23 C, as compared to 35 days at 15 C. The final developmental stage (epicaridium larvae) was 3 times shorter at 23 C (median 3 days; n = 45) than at 15 C (median 9 days; n = 15). Temperature significantly affected the intermolt period of parasitized shrimp, which was shorter at 23 C (median 12 days) than at 15 C (median 37 days). A smaller percentage of the intermolt period elapsed between larval release and shrimp molting at 23 C (0.0%) than at 15 C (3.1%), indicating closer synchronization between host molting and parasite reproduction at the warmer temperature. At 15 C, the isopods utilized a smaller proportion of the time that was available for brood incubation during the intermolt period of their host. Brood size ranged from 391 to 4,596 young and was positively correlated with parasite and host size. Because development progressed more rapidly at 23 C, warmer temperatures could increase the prevalence of P. pandalicola. The corresponding reduction in the abundance of ovigerous grass shrimp as a result of sexual sterilization by bopyrids could adversely impact estuarine ecosystems, as grass shrimp are a crucial link in transferring energy from detritus to secondary consumers.

Organisms face a multitude of potential stressors, and the way these stressors interact can provide insights into underlying biological processes. This study examined the flour beetle Tribolium confusum and its survival, net fecundity, and surface-seeking behavior in response to combinations of stressors from 3 categories. Infection by the cestode Hymenolepis diminuta provided a stress of parasitic origin. Exposure to diatomaceous earth (DE) provided a stress of environmental origin. Use of virgin and mated beetles evaluated reproduction as a stress of host origin. Single and multiple exposure of beetles to parasite eggs achieved a maximum mean abundance of 21 parasites/beetle and a maximum intensity of 90 parasites in an individual beetle. DE reduced initial parasite establishment, but did not directly affect survival of parasites after their establishment in the host. A rehydration technique was used to recover parasites from dead beetles, enabling this to be the first study to correlate H. diminuta intensity at time of death directly to mortality of T. confusum. A dichotomous intensity–mortality relationship was observed in 8% DE, whereby lightly infected (<20 parasites) hosts were killed by DE in an intensity-independent manner, but more heavily infected hosts were killed in an intensity-dependent manner. Host mating status did not affect host survival, but there were interactions among mating status, parasitism, and DE on net fecundity and surface-seeking behavior. However, these effects were minor compared to the host mortality that occurred when parasite abundance and DE concentration were both high. The aggregated distribution of T. confusum in beetles, the difficulty of achieving high mean abundances, and an apparent need for the stressors to have strong effects individually if they are to have enhanced effects when in combination, suggests that exposure to multiple stressors would seriously impact only a small proportion of the host population.

Toxoplasma gondii induces polarization of mouse macrophages, including both classically activated macrophages (M1) and alternatively activated macrophages (M2) in a genotype-related manner. Here we present a novel result that the Wh6 strain with type Chinese 1, which is predominantly prevalent in China, induces Arg1 expression in a STAT6-dependent manner in primary rat peritoneal macrophages as compared to the PRU stain with type II, which elicited a high expression of Arg1 in a C/EBPβ-dependent manner. In addition, dexamethasone inhibited Arg1 expression in rat macrophages in both treatments. Our data suggest that Arg1 expression, which is abundant in polarized M2 cells, is associated with strain/genotype differences from different pathways.

The genus Temnocephala is endemic to the Neotropical region. Temnocephala mexicana and Temnocephala chilensis are the only 2 temnocephalans whose known distribution ranges extend to the south beyond Parallel 40°S. No Temnocephala species has ever been recorded from the extensive area between Parallel 43°S and the southern end of the South American continent, which makes the study of the southern limit of the distribution of the genus a topic of great interest. The southernmost report corresponds to T. chilensis from the Telsen River, Chubut Province, Argentina. In March 2000, several temnocephalans were found on the freshwater anomuran crustacean Aegla neuquensis from the same locality; the specimens were identified as belonging to a new species, which is described here. This species is characterized by possessing an unusually thin-walled, narrow zone that has the appearance of a deep groove connecting the introvert to the shaft of the penial stylet; an introvert with 36 longitudinal rows of spines, each bearing 6–8 spines that are progressively smaller towards the distal end; a distal end of the introvert with a very thin, sclerotized wall without spines; a seminal vesicle that opens sub-polarly into the contractile vesicle; a pair of paranephrocytes at the level of the pharynx and a second pair at the level of the anterior portion of the anterior testes, and eggs with very long stalks. On the basis of their overall morphology, host preference, and geographical distribution, T. chilensis and the new species are closely related, so a diagnostic key for the southern species of Temnocephala is also included. The type locality of the new species is in the southern limit of the known distribution area of T. chilensis, so after this work there are 2 known species marking the southern limit of the distribution of the genus.

Cystacanths of 4 species of Acanthocephala are reported for the first time from various species of fish belonging to the Order Pleuronectiformes from waters of the western Gulf of Carpentaria and the central coast of Queensland, Australia: Corynosoma cetaceum Johnston and Best, 1942 (Family Polymorphidae), Serrasentis cf. sagittifer (Linton, 1889) and Rhadinorhynchus sp. (Family Rhadinorhynchidae), and Gorgorhynchoides sp. (Family Isthmosacanthidae). Approximately 32% of the 515 individual fish belonging to 24 species were infected with at least 1 cystacanth. Serrasentis cf. sagittifer was the most-commonly encountered, infecting a total of 18 species of fish across both regions. Gorgorhynchoides sp. infected 7 fish species in the Gulf of Carpentaria only while Rhadinorhynchus sp. (1 fish species) and C. cetaceum (7 fish species) were only found on the central coast of Queensland. Most fish were infected with a single cystacanth of any species. There was no relationship between total length of fish and intensity of infection for any species. This paper provides information on parasite infections in fish hosts commonly caught as by-catch and outlines the need for further studies on these fish to be able to determine sustainability of such fish stocks.

The endogenous life cycle of Eimeria marmosopos was studied in experimentally infected young opossums, Didelphis marsupialis. All the endogenous stages were located in the epithelial cells of villi in the small intestine. Giemsa-stained mucosal scrapings and histological sections were studied for the diagnosis of all the life cycle stages. Eimeria marmosopos has 3 generations of meronts (M) that differ by size, shape, and number of merozoites (m), which also differ in their size, shape, and location of their nuclei within the cytoplasm of the meronts. The 3 meront types, M₁–M₃, respectively, had 8–15 (m₁), 4–9 (m₂), and 22–30 (m₃) merozoites. Macrogametocytes and microgametocytes, as well as macrogametes and microgametes, completed the sexual cycle, finishing with the formation of unsporulated oocysts. This parasite's endogenous development produced severe intestinal lesions in experimentally infected opossums. There are 56 Eimeria species known from all marsupials worldwide, but this is the first complete life cycle in which both the asexual and sexual stages have been documented.

The thelastomatoid pinworm fauna (Nematoda: Oxyurida: Thelastomatoidea) was surveyed in 3 endemic species and 6 introduced species of cockroach hosts (Insecta: Blattaria) in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador. A total of 658 host specimens were examined from preserved collections that had been collected between 1966 and 2003 from 7 islands in the archipelago. Eight species of pinworms were identified from these cockroach hosts, including the dominant species Cephalobellus ovumglutinosus and a Severianoia sp. as well as Leidynema appendiculata, Hammerschmidtiella diesingi, an unidentified Cephalobellus species resembling Cephalobellus magalhaesi, an unidentified Protrellus species closely resembling Protrellus shamimi, and an undescribed Blattophila sp. Five new host records are identified for C. ovumglutinosus including the endemic Galápagos cockroaches Chorisoneura carpenteri, Ischnoptera snodgrassii, and Ischnoptera santacruzensis. These endemics were also infected with an undescribed Blatticola sp. Other species recorded resemble known pinworms from other hosts around the world. Prevalence between islands and between host species was variable, but total prevalence for individual pinworm species was consistently low (<10%). A single host specimen examined was infected with more than 1 pinworm species; otherwise only a single species was observed in each infected host. At least 1 introduced pinworm species carried to the islands via invasive cockroach hosts was present in endemic host species, but several globally widespread introduced pinworm species were absent from endemic cockroaches. Santa Cruz was inhabited by the greatest number of pinworm species, likely due to a higher rate of invasive host introduction. This survey, the first from this region, showed that the distribution and transmission of pinworms in the Galápagos Islands is complex and may provide future models of invertebrate dispersal and speciation in an ecosystem already rich with examples of evolution.

A paleoparasitological study was performed on soil samples obtained at archaeological sites dating to the Baekje period in ancient Korean history. The samples were obtained from Buyeo, the capital area of the Baekje Kingdom, and from others corresponding to provincial counties of the same period. We found Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura eggs in the Buyeo samples but not any in the samples from the provincial counties. Our results suggest that the parasite-egg contamination patterns were closely correlated with population densities, in that the provincial counties of the Kingdom, compared with the capital Buyeo, were very sparsely populated. This is the first comprehensive paleoparasitological report on soil contamination patterns in the capital of the Baekje Kingdom, one of the most highly populated areas in ancient Korean history.

Sarcocystis neurona is considered the major etiologic agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), a neurological disease in horses. Raccoon (Procyon lotor) is considered the most important intermediate host in the life cycle of S. neurona in the United States; S. neurona sarcocysts do mature in raccoon muscles, and raccoons also develop clinical signs simulating EPM. The focus of this study was to determine if sarcocysts would develop in raccoons experimentally inoculated with different host-derived strains of in vitro–cultivated S. neurona merozoites. Four raccoons were inoculated with strains derived from a raccoon, a sea otter, a cat, and a horse. Raccoon tissues were fed to laboratory-raised opossums (Didelphis virginiana), the definitive host of S. neurona. Intestinal scraping revealed sporocysts in opossums who received muscle tissue from raccoons inoculated with the raccoon-derived or the sea otter–derived isolates. These results demonstrate that sarcocysts can mature in raccoons inoculated with in vitro–derived S. neurona merozoites. In contrast, the horse and cat-derived isolates did not produce microscopically or biologically detected sarcocysts. Immunoblot analysis revealed both antigenic and antibody differences when testing the inoculated raccoons. Immunohistochemical staining indicated differences in staining between the merozoite and sarcocyst stages. The successful infections achieved in this study indicates that the life cycle can be manipulated in the laboratory without affecting subsequent stage development, thereby allowing further purification of strains and artificial maintenance of the life cycle.

Spectatus spectatus Travassos, 1923 (Nematoda: Kathlaniidae) found in the intestine of Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887) (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae) from the River Miranda, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil is redescribed based on morphological evaluation of newly collected material and examination of type and voucher specimens from the Coleção Helmintológica do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. The following characteristics previously unreported or insufficiently described were observed: morphology of lips, presence of lamellae-like supplementary lips, presence of pharynx and cuticular ring surrounding the oral opening associated with a complex cuticular apparatus anterior to the pharynx, the number and arrangement of caudal papillae (13 pairs plus 1 unpaired), and the position of nerve ring. Since S. spectatus is the type species of Spectatus, the diagnosis of this Neotropical genus is amended. Synonymy of Chabaudinema Díaz-Ungría, 1968 with Spectatus, first proposed in 1980 by Baker, is supported by the present data. Molecular data that include the first sequence of the SSU rDNA for any species of Spectatus indicate a basal position of S. spectatus within Cosmocercoidea, forming a distant lineage from that comprising 2 species of Falcaustra Lane, 1915. This separate position of S. spectatus supports validity of the genus.

The nematophagous fungus Duddingtonia flagrans has been investigated as a biological agent for the control of gastrointestinal nematodes infecting domestic animals in other countries. However, D. flagrans has not been detected in China. In this study 1,135 samples were examined from 2012 to 2014; 4 D. flagrans isolates (SDH 035, SDH 091, SFH 089, SFG 170) were obtained from the feces of domestic animals and dung compost. The 4 isolates were then characterized morphologically. The SDH 035 strain was characterized by sequencing the ITS1–5.8S rDNA–ITS2 region. A BLAST search showed that the SDH 035 strain (GenBank KP257593) was 100% identical to Arthrobotrys flagrans (AF106520) and was identified as D. flagrans. The morphological plasticity of the isolated strain and the interaction of this strain with the nematode targets were observed by subjecting the infected trichostrongylide L₃ to scanning electron microscopy. At 6 and 8 hr after trichostrongylide L₃ was added, hyphal ramifications were observed and L₃ were captured, respectively. Scanning electron micrographs were obtained at 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, and 48 hr, where 0 is the time when trichostrongylide L₃ were first captured by the fungus. The details of the capture process by the fungus are also described. Chlamydospores were observed in the body of L₃ in the late stage of digestion. A sticky substance and bacteria could be observed in contact areas between predation structures and nematode cuticle.

This study aimed to determine the susceptibility of the Mayan cichlid Cichlasoma urophthalmus to infection with the fungus Aphanomyces invadans (also known as epizootic ulcerative syndrome [EUS]). A total of 27 C. urophthalmus were exposed to the original A. Invadans 2006/86/EC strain by intramuscularly injecting the fish with 25,000 zoospores/ml or exposing the fish to a suspension of 25,000 zoospores/ml in 6-L aquaria for 30 days. To assess the infectious capacity of A. invadans, 3 golden barbs (Puntius semifasciolatus) were infected intramuscularly with 200,000 zoospores/ml. A second experiment using 100 C. urophthalmus was performed for 60 days with 50 fish in each treatment group. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based diagnostic method was used; muscle and gills were the target tissues. In the first experiment, none of the exposed C. urophthalmus developed skin lesions related to A. invadans infection. However, PCR analysis revealed that infection had occurred. For the intramuscular treatment, there were significant differences between the controls and the muscle samples (Fisher's exact test; P < 0.05) but not between the controls and the gill samples (P > 0.05). All golden barbs became infected, as indicated by PCR, and developed skin lesions typical of A. invadans infection. We concluded that C. urophthalmus was infected with A. invadans but was an asymptomatic carrier because skin lesions did not develop. In the second experiment, all fish were negative, suggesting that the fish had cleared the infection by the end of the experiment.

Here we report the case of a 42-yr-old patient who presented himself to us with a serpiginous erythematous lesion from the wrist of the right forearm up the arm to the right shoulder A similar lesion of a smaller size was also present in the left forearm. On the basis of clinical manifestations and progression of the lesion, combined with previous treatments and different diagnostic investigations, hookworm-related cutaneous larva migrans (HrCLM) disease was hypothesized. Albendazole was employed as treatment and the resolution of the symptoms confirmed the diagnosis. The relevance of the reported case relies on 3 main aspects: the acquisition of the disease in Italy, the initial treatment with topical corticosteroids that sped up the progression of the cutaneous trail, and the uncommon location of the lesions. Furthermore, the anamnestic data and the laboratory/clinical investigations strongly suggested an occupational exposure to the etiological agent. As illustrated here, HrCLM might represent a challenge for Western physicians in terms of diagnosis, treatment, and ways of acquisition. Describing the clinical presentation and the treatment of cases of cutaneous larva migrans might contribute to early and correct diagnosis, to an increase of our knowledge on this disease, and to an update on its epidemiology.

Blood samples of 119 red foxes, originating from 44 hunting grounds of 3 western counties (Arad, Hunedoara, and Timiş) of Romania, have been examined for the presence of Hepatozoon canis infection using the conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the fragment of 18S rRNA gene. Overall, 15 (12.6%) samples were found to be PCR-positive. Of the sampled hunting grounds, 29.5% (13/44) were found positive. Positive samples were recorded in all screened counties with the prevalence of 14.8% (9/61) in Arad, 9.8% (5/51) in Timiş, and 14.3% (1/7) in Hunedoara, respectively. No correlation was found (P > 0.05) between H. canis positivity and gender or territorial distribution of the infection. To confirm PCR results, 9 randomly selected amplicons were sequenced. The obtained sequences were identical to each other, confirmed the results of the conventional PCR, and showed 98–100% homology to other H. canis sequences. The results of the current survey support the role of red foxes as sylvatic reservoirs of H. canis in Romania.

Morphological and genetic data on the larvae of Anisakidae parasitizing the sandperches Pseudopercis numida and Pinguipes brasilianus were recorded from Cabo Frio, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (23°S, 42°W). Twenty-five specimens of P. numida and 25 specimens of P. brasilianus were necropsied. The 352 larvae collected included 1 Anisakis sp., 344 Hysterothylacium sp., and 7 Raphidascaris sp. We present mtDNA sequence data for Anisakis sp. and Hysterothylacium sp., and we sequenced the ITS ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of Hysterothylacium sp. and Raphidascaris sp. The morphological and genetic profiles confirmed the identification of Anisakis typica (Diesing, 1860). Hysterothylacium sp. and Raphidascaris sp. were not identified to the species level due to the absence of similar sequences for adult parasites. The mtDNA sequence of Hysterothylacium sp. from P. numida showed a high similarity to the sequence of Hysterothylacium deardorffoverstreetorum. However, a phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the presence of different clades under the same name as the larval H. deardorffoverstreetorum. Pseudopercis numida is a new host record for A. typica.

The helminth fauna of 31 juvenile specimens of Eretmochelys imbricata from the Brazilian coast was examined. Seventeen individuals were infected with helminths (54.8%). The helminths found were: Diaschistorchis pandus, Cricocephalus albus, Metacetabulum invaginatum, Pronocephalus obliquus (Pronocephalidae), Cymatocarpus solearis (Brachycoeliidae), Styphlotrema solitaria (Styphlotrematidae), Carettacola stunkardi, Amphiorchis caborojoensis (Spirorchiidae), Orchidasma amphiorchis (Telorchiidae), and Anisakis nematode larvae. This report is the first analysis of parasite communities in this host.