Wildlife monitoring is an important conservation tool, but in the savannah regions of Africa, cash-strapped and capacity-limited authorities rank it low on their priority list. To try to reduce the time, effort, and financial costs of monitoring large mammals, I examine a 20-year dataset of herbivore records taken from vehicle transects carried out in Katavi National Park, western Tanzania. I find that: (i) population trends obtained from ground transects are similar to those obtained from aerial surveys conducted over a wider area; (ii) the frequency of vehicle surveys driven per year or (iii) across years can be reduced without losing substantial information; (iv) it is inadvisable to stint on numbers of transects driven; and (v) trends in populations of single species do not represent those of others. These findings are encouraging because they indicate that managers can obtain relatively accurate information about herbivore population trends through infrequent and therefore more cost-effective monitoring.

The objective of this study was to document the structure of the fish assemblages found in the aquatic environments affected by the Coaracy Nunes hydroelectric reservoir in Ferreira-Gomes, Amapá (Brazil) and the principal factors that determine this structure. In order to do this, standardized samples were collected of the fauna and the environmental parameters in the four principal sectors of the reservoir (upstream, the reservoir, the lake, and downstream). Fish species richness, abundance, and biomass were estimated for each sector. The abundance data were analyzed using null models of co-occurrence. A multivariate BIO-ENV analysis was used to examine the relationship between biological and environmental factors. The relationship between species richness and biomass of both prey and predator species was analyzed to determine whether predation was affecting community structure. Size spectrum analysis was conducted to verify whether fishing has influenced community structure. The results indicated contrasting seasonal patterns of deterministic processes in the downstream and lake sectors, suggesting that competition or abiotic factors may play a role in community structure. Stochastic patterns were recorded in the other sectors. Environmental factors, such as water transparency and depth, and the reservoir level were also closely related to the relative abundance of species in the communities. The relationship between the species richness and the biomass of predators and prey indicated that predation was an important determinant of community structure, which was interrupted by selective fishing. Despite the stochastic nature of most processes, deterministic factors were fundamental to the structure of the assemblages found in the downstream and lake sectors.

The ongoing expansion of the transportation network is one of the most important threats to tropical ecosystems. In recent years, the Brazilian government is making huge investments in paving and upgrading of the existing road network. It is therefore crucial time to consider how to achieve mitigation of two main road impacts: wildlife mortality and isolation. We discuss the improvement of road ecology research and environmental impact assessments, and recommend the integration of both as a way to achieve effective mitigation. Research oriented toward practical needs is likely to increase use of road ecology in decisions about the impacts of roads and traffic, including the environmental licensing of roads. Well-planned, focused assessments can effectively influence road planning. However, merely improving environmental assessments and research will not be enough to make environmental licensing more effective: there is a need for integration among professions involved in road construction, biodiversity management and conservation for better regulations and enforcement.

Human-wildlife conflict is a widespread problem that threatens both animals and local livelihoods. When this conflict involves predators, the additional risks to human life worsen the problem. The perceptions of human-predator conflict have been investigated multiple times, usually to generate data for conflict resolution. However, such efforts have largely involved mammals from the order Carnivora. In this work, we tested hypotheses about the feeding habits of two species of constricting anacondas from the genus Eunectes and human perception of risks and attitudes associated with such habits. In particular, we investigated the consequences for the snake after predation on domestic or wild animals. We also tested the relationship between human killing of anacondas and local development indicators – a proxy for general education level. Data were obtained from internet videos using a standardized method for information retrieval. A total of 330 videos of human-anaconda encounters were recovered from ten different South American countries. We found that visual evidence of a recent meal (distended abdomen) and predation on domestic animals did not affect the probability of the anaconda being killed, but this probability increased as the Human Development Index (HDI) diminished and as anaconda size increased. Although retaliatory killing is described as one of main causes of animal mortality following human-wildlife conflicts, our results suggest that killing of anacondas are not retaliatory or related to economic losses, but preventive, because these snakes are seen as life-threatening animals. Adding social context information on human-predator conflicts, together with taxon-free research on this subject can improve our knowledge about human-wildlife conflict. Further research could focus on the actual impacts (direct or indirect) of anacondas on stakeholders, and on the role of other non-mammalian predators in human-wildlife conflicts (whether actual or perceived).

Small-scale fisheries of lagoon-estuarine complexes (LECs) in Northwest Mexico were investigated using official landings data. Species groups found in landings were clustered into three categories according to their life cycle and habitat distribution: Lagoon-estuarine (LE), Transition zone (TZ) and Coastal (CO). Average landings were highest for LE (19,606 t yr⁻¹), followed by TZ (7,234 t yr⁻¹), and CO (3,155 t yr⁻¹). In contrast, the total number of fished species groups had an opposite pattern: LE, TZ, and CO bore 31, 66 and 74 species groups respectively. The number of species groups in LE category significantly increased towards LECs of southern latitudes. The families with highest landings in LECs were Penaeidae, Portunidae, Mugilidae, Scombridae, and Lutjanidae. The area of LECs was significantly correlated with the amount of landings recorded for LE category. A similarity analysis of LECs species groups revealed a latitudinal clustering of northern and southern LECs. Overall, fisheries in LECs produced millions of $US per year, which support socioeconomic activities at the local, regional, and national scale. Although the information and landings data on LECs fisheries in Northwest Mexico have limitations for data analysis, our results suggest that changes in fisheries management of LECs, such as bottom-up management actions where resource users can participate, could help establish more sustainable fishing practices in these ecosystems and allow coastal communities to continue obtaining economic benefits and food supply from LECs in Northwest Mexico.

Large-scale identification of landscape types in species-rich forest ecosystems is a challenge to landscape designers and forest ecologists. With a systematic grid-sample-plot investigation and landscape-attributes extraction of SPOT-5 imagery in a tropical forest region in Hainan Island, China, we developed a landscape classification system of land cover, successional stages, and dominant plant functional groups in species-rich forest ecosystems. We classified the study landscape into eight land cover types, four successional stages, and six functional patch types, with accuracies at ≥ 78%. The patches dominated by the pioneer functional groups were mainly distributed in areas of early recovery stages on sunny slopes at elevations < 850 m, while the climax functional groups had more occupancies in the late recovery stages on shaded slopes at elevations > 850 m. The slope gradient had no significant influence on the patch distribution patterns in the study region. Our results show that species-rich forest landscapes can be classified into patch types of different dominant functional groups and successional stages through remote sensing in conjunction with ground survey and GIS.

Cyatheaceae (tree ferns) are an ancient plant family widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, and are valued as witnesses to the evolution of the earth's species. The factors affecting tree fern growth include temperature, moisture, and light. In recent years, mass mortalities of Cyathea lepifera have occurred in Taiwan, threatening the survival of this species. To examine the growth situation of tree ferns in Southern Taiwan, we used the Tajen Experimental Forest Station as a study area and surveyed 214 samples of C. lepifera trees to establish spatial information for a database of C. lepifera to be used for conservation strategy. The results show that the ecological optima are an elevation of 500–800 m, slope of 20–30°, aspect of 90–135° (Eastern), and whole light sky space of 20%–80%. Most tree ferns grow in open areas and valley areas, and the health of C. lepifera is greatest in the valley areas. In addition, a high light environment is not conducive to seedling regeneration, and low light conditions lead to competition for resources. Therefore, C. lepifera can grow in a medium-high photometric environment, which promotes plant growth and seedling regeneration. In the future, we will designate conservation areas according to the optimal habitat as well as adopt forest management practices to protect this species.

The western lowlands of Ecuador form part of the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena hotspot, a region with exceptionally high endemism but also elevated rates of deforestation. The Critically Endangered Ecuadorian brown-headed spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps fusciceps) is endemic to the region and threatened by continuing habitat loss and hunting. Studies of the species' conservation status maintain that its current distribution is restricted to several large tracts of primary forest remaining in northwestern Ecuador, and that the total population numbers around 250 individuals. We report a previously unknown population of brown-headed spider monkeys found 100 km southwest of the species' known distribution in a highly fragmented landscape of Manabí province. This finding not only represents an important advance in our knowledge of the species' geographic distribution, but also suggests that brown-headed spider monkeys may be able to persist as a metapopulation in human-modified landscapes.

Scientists debate two alternative paradigms for tropical biodiversity conservation in human-modified landscapes (HML). Strict government-managed reserves (GMR) have many limitations, including little social support as they transfer conservation costs to local communities. Community-protected areas (CPA) retain control and benefits of biodiversity for local residents, but evidence of their ability to conserve biodiversity is scarce. To test the hypothesis that CPAs are effective in conserving biodiversity, we used camera-trap data to assess differences in abundance, taxonomic and functional (body size and trophic guild) diversity and composition of terrestrial mammal assemblages among CPAs, GMR, and open-access forests (OAF). CPA and OAF sites were located in a HML adjacent to Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, which is representative of GMR. CPAs and OAFs did not differ in landscape context (forest cover, distance to towns and roads, patch size). Our results show that the HML retains all of the species in the regional pool. We found no difference in species diversity among protection conditions, but species composition was different among them. Abundance of medium-sized generalist species was higher in the HML than in GMR, while large species and small herbivores were scarcer. Abundance of omnivorous and insectivorous generalists was highest in OAF, where large predators were not detected. OAFs exhibited fewer functional groups. No evidence was found that landscape context affected these results. We conclude that CPAs can play an important role in biodiversity conservation. Spatial integration of conservation initiatives and training communities in wildlife management would increase the effectiveness of CPAs.

The islands of the Pacific region hold three of the 35 global biodiversity hotspots with large numbers of endemic species. Global climate change will exacerbate the challenges faced by the biodiversity of this region. In this review, we identify trends in characteristics for 305 terrestrial species threatened by climate change and severe weather according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). We then review the literature on observed and potential impacts of climate change on terrestrial biodiversity, focusing on the species' characteristics that were identified. High-elevation ecosystems such as cloud montane forests are projected to disappear entirely by the year 2100, with corresponding global losses of their endemic biodiversity. Sea level rise threatens restricted range species on small low-lying atolls. Shifts in distribution may be possible for generalist species, but range shifts will be difficult for species with small distributions, specialized habitat requirements, slow dispersal rates, and species at high elevations. Accurate assessments of climate change impacts on biodiversity of the region are difficult because of confusion about nomenclature, the many species unknown to science, the lack of baseline data on species' ecology and distributions, and lack of fine resolution elevation data for very small islands. Furthermore, synergistic interactions of climate change with other threats like habitat loss and invasive species have not been comprehensively assessed. Addressing these knowledge gaps will be difficult for Pacific island nations due to limited financial resources and expertise.

The structure and underlying functions of the majority of the world's tropical forests have been disrupted by human impacts, but the potential biodiversity and conservation value of regenerating forests is still debated. One review suggests that on average, regenerating tropical forests hold 57% (±2.6%) of primary forest species richness, raising doubt about a viable second chance to conserve biodiversity through rainforest regeneration. Average values, however, likely underestimate the potential benefit to biodiversity and conservation because they are drawn from many studies of short-term regeneration and studies confounded by ongoing human disturbance. We suggest that the true potential biodiversity and conservation value of regenerating rainforest could be better assessed in the absence of such factors and present a multi-taxa case study of faunal biodiversity in regenerating tropical forest in lowland Amazonia. We found that biodiversity of this regenerating site was higher than might have been expected, reaching 87% (±3.5%) of primary forest alpha diversity and an average of 83% (±6.7) of species estimated to have occurred in the region before disturbance. Further, the regenerating forest held 37 species of special conservation concern, representing 88% of species of highest conservation importance predicted to exist in primary forest from the region. We conclude that this specific regenerating rainforest has high biodiversity and conservation value, and that whilst preserving primary forest is essential, our results suggest that under a best-case scenario of effective conservation management, high levels of biodiversity can return to heavily disturbed tropical forest ecosystems.

Habitat occupancy is a good indicator of wildlife behavior and interactions with their environment. We used camera traps to study the use of cavities by lowland paca (Cuniculus paca) in three sites in the Lacandon Rainforest of Chiapas, Mexico. To understand the biotic, environmental, physical, anthropic, and behavioral elements that affect spotted lowland paca, the cameras recorded lowland paca activity in front of 29 cavities. Monitoring occurred continuously in cavities near permanent natural water bodies, underneath roots of trees, or inside hollow logs. These cavities were more frequently found in Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (MABR), where hunting pressure was low. The daily occupancy and permanence of lowland paca in these cavities were associated with the presence of its offspring. There were no offspring recorded in cavities alongside rivers within grazing areas. This suggests the potential existence of a sink-source type of metapopulation, where community reserves and MABR would serve as source habitat, while riparian corridors would be sink habitat for this species. Lowland pacas used these locations, which were scattered through the study area, so long as hunting was moderate and riparian corridors with safe cavities in large trees were well preserved.

The impact of roads on the flora and fauna of Neotropical rainforest is perhaps the single biggest driver of habitat modification and population declines in these ecosystems. We investigated the road-edge effect of a low-use dirt road on amphibian and reptile abundance, diversity, and composition within adjacent lowland Amazonian rainforest at San José de Payamino, Ecuador. The road has been closed to vehicle traffic since its construction in 2010. Thus, effects from vehicle mortality, vehicle-related pollution, and road noise were not confounding factors. Herpetofauna were surveyed using both visual encounter surveys and drift fences with pitfall and funnel traps at varying distances from the road. Structural and microclimate features of the forest were measured at each sampling distance. Several habitat variables were found to differ at intermediate and interior sampling distances from the road compared to forest edge conditions, suggesting the road-edge effect began to attenuate by the intermediate sampling distance. However, the edge effect on amphibians and reptiles appeared to extend 100 m from the road edge, as abundance and diversity were significantly greater at the interior forest compared to the forest edge. Additionally, assemblage composition as well as the hierarchical position of species shifted between sampling distances. Habitat predictor models indicate that amphibian abundance was best predicted by vine abundance, while both vine and mature tree abundance were the best predictors for species richness and diversity. Overall, and contrary to what might otherwise be expected, our results demonstrate that small, little-used road disturbances can nonetheless have profound impacts on wildlife.

The Brazilian cerrado, a hotspot of biodiversity, has suffered intense fragmentation in the last decades with an associated increase in areas subjected to edge effects. Plant phenology may be influenced by abiotic changes induced by edge effects, such as increases in temperature and light. We studied the phenology of the guamirim (Myrcia guianensis, Myrtaceae) and its relation to local abiotic factors in a Brazilian cerrado area between 2005 and 2011, aiming to answer: (i) whether M. guianensis phenology differs between the edge and the interior and/or between cardinal orientations at the study site, given that environments facing east are lighter and warmer than environments facing south; and (ii) how microenvironmental factors influence the observed phenological patterns. We sampled 92 individuals in 36 transects (25m × 2m), distributed along the edge and in the interior (100m from the edge) of the east and south faces. Myrcia guianensis presented seasonal patterns of leafing and reproduction, but only reproduction was influenced by microenvironmental conditions. Individuals on the east edge — the warmest and driest environment with the most light — presented with the highest synchrony and intensity of reproductive phenophases, followed by the east interior, south interior and south edge. Flowering and fruiting onset and peak dates occurred around 20 days earlier on the east edge than the south face. Edge conditions, primarily cardinal orientation, and associated higher temperatures and light incidence influenced the reproductive phenology of M. guianensis and the onset of flowering and fruiting. We suggest that edges could be used to evaluate plant responses to the temperature increases predicted for future climate change scenarios.

Thailand is a world biodiversity hotspot with 176 known snake species. However, anthropogenic influences on snakes associated with growing human populations are poorly understood. Aquatic funnel traps (AFTs) are in widespread use in agricultural areas throughout Thailand, and they have the ability to collect large quantities of by-catch, including snakes. During an on-going study on the human-snake conflict we found, using radio-telemetry, one of our radio-tracked Bungarus candidus (Malayan Krait) individuals dead on 13 October 2015. We had tracked the individual for only 14 days before finding it decapitated 10 m from a villager's house. Upon interviewing the owner, we discovered that the snake had been found dead in a fishing trap, in a man-made irrigation canal located 65 m southeast from his house. Our observation is the first documented case of incidental mortality among upland-dwelling snakes as a result of aquatic trapping in Thailand, and may have implications throughout Southeast Asia. This report suggests fishing traps may be another source of mortality for snakes in human-dominated landscapes, and that further studies may reveal significant rates of terrestrial by-catch in agricultural canals.

The montane forests of south-eastern Nigeria are of immense conservation value due to their high levels of biodiversity and endemism. Yet despite increasing anthropogenic disturbance and forest fragmentation, little is known about the genetics of resident tree populations. We used a set of conserved chloroplast simple sequence repeat (SSR) primers to quantify and directly compare genetic diversity in three tree species: Cordia millenii, West African Cordia; Entandrophragma angolense, tiama mahogany; and Lovoa trichilioides, African walnut, within a single montane forest. Additionally, we assessed the diversity of West African Cordia between forests at a local and regional scale. Results indicate that for our focal loci, in all three species, there is a general lack of chloroplast genetic diversity. Our study is particularly relevant because it considers genetic diversity among multiple tree species simultaneously. This work represents the first study of its kind in the region, and will pioneer the way for future conservation genetic studies in montane Nigeria.

Islands are natural laboratories for evolutionary studies due to their small areas, structural complexity (compared to continents), and their different degrees of isolation. The present study involved four distinct areas, one continental and three insular, on the southern coast of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. These islands were formed by coastal flooding at the end of the last glacial maximum, approximately 10 thousand years ago. We investigated acoustic parameters in the advertisement call of the green tree frog, Aplastodiscus eugenioi (Hylidae), looking for variations that could be associated with geographic isolation in the insular populations. We measured six acoustic parameters of the advertisement calls of 59 males, 15 specimens from the continent and 44 from the islands. We found significant variation in acoustic parameters within the population from ***Ilha de Itacuruçá, suggesting that isolation, despite the relatively short period, favored differentiation of acoustical parameters. In fact, call evolution may involve a series of changes in both females and males in a synchronous way, so that the signal producer and receiver can behave accordingly for successful reproduction.

The keeping and commercialization of the native wild fauna of Brazil as pets threatens many animal species. These practices are traditional and common, and have persisted until the present day in the semiarid region of Brazil in spite of their illegality. We used an ethnozoological approach to investigate keeping native vertebrates as pets in a city of the semiarid region of Brazil, as well as the conservationist implications of this practice. We found that most of the interviewees raised pets, predominately domesticated animals (cats and dogs). Keeping wild animals as pets, however, persists in the region, and 31 wild native species were identified, including 28 bird species. Other groups included mammals (n= 2 species) and reptiles (n=1). Among the wild birds, the families with the most species were Thraupidae (39%), Columbidae (19%), and Icteridae (10%). Keeping wild animals as pets is a clandestine practice that involves people from all socioeconomic levels – indicating its strong cultural character and the inefficiency of environmental enforcement actions. Future strategies for the conservation of native wild animals must include educational activities in the schools, the substitution of these wild species for domestic cats and dogs, and/or stimulating legal breeding programs for wild animals. Additionally, steps must be taken to strengthen enforcement of laws against illegal trafficking of wild animals.

Over the past six years, elephant poaching and the illicit ivory trade have attracted global attention and Tanzania has been slated as one of the worst offenders. During the 2013 CITES Conference of the Parties in Bangkok, Tanzania, along with Kenya, Uganda, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand and China were labeled “the gang of eight”, singled out as being instrumental in fueling the illegal ivory trade either as suppliers, transit countries, or consumers. Individuals, conservation groups and local and international media have accused the Tanzanian government of inaction and have linked the current slaughter of elephants to increased criminality, corruption, the proliferation of firearms, the failure of the judicial system and a perception that Tanzania is a sanctuary for criminals. Besides tarnishing the image of the country, elephant poaching has undesirable effects on the ecological, economic and security aspects. This paper explores these effects and highlights the need for reversing the current trend of this crime. The paper provides an historical overview of poaching in Tanzania and urges for immediate action to halt the crime. Focusing on factors that are considered key in driving poaching, the paper recommends some proactive measures that should be adopted in order to reverse the current trend. The paper highlights the positive outcomes the adoption of these measures could have for conservation efforts.

Reeds are a tall, thin, shrubby, highly productive grass of the Poaceae family, and have a worldwide distribution except for in Antarctica. Temperate reed species include Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud., Arundo donax L., Phalaris arundinacea L. Tropical reeds include bamboo genus Ochlandra and are endemic to the Western Ghats of India as well as to Sri Lanka. Reeds are an important component of the forest ecosystem, providing numerous ecosystem services which help to maintain forest stability. They are a keystone species and serve as an important food source for many animals. Reed biomass is widely used for solid biofuel production and for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. They are an excellent sink for carbon sequestration and the absorption of point-source pollution from the waterbeds. Reed bamboos have been considered as the most important non-timber forest product (NTFPs) for the subsistence and support of the economically weaker strata of the society. Owing to ever increasing demand, coupled with unscientific management practices, there has been a gradual depletion of reed resources over the years. The reed bamboo biomass of the Western Ghats, in particular, has been severely depleted, and there is an urgent need for effective conservation and proper scientific management to ensure its viability and long-term survival. This review summarizes the versatility and importance of reeds in terms of ecological benefits, carbon sequestration ability, soil and water management potential and ecosystem services, with particular reference to the endemic reed bamboo resources of the Western Ghats of India.

Myrtaceae species play an important role in maintaining the biodiversity of the Atlantic Forest. However, most species of this biome have not been studied. In this work we examined whether microsatellite markers developed for other Myrtaceae species are useful in genetic studies of native species of the Atlantic Forest. We evaluated the transferability of 21 microsatellite markers derived from Eucalyptus sp., Eugenia uniflora, and Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel to eight Atlantic Forest species (Campomanesia xanthocarpa (guabiroba do mato), Campomanesia adamantium, Eugenia uniflora (surinam cherry), Eugenia involucrata (cherry of the Rio Grande), Myrcianthes pungens (guabiju), Plinia cauliflora (jaboticaba), Psidium guajava (guava), and Psidium sp.(araçá) and the utility of the transferred markers in obtaining genetic data from Eugenia uniflora. The transferability of microsatellite primers pairs was high (>52%) in seven of the eight species studied. In three populations of E. uniflora, the transferred primers amplified the same average number of alleles, and the same expected heterozygosity was obtained with species-specific primers. The genetic parameters F_IS, Shannon diversity, genetic distance of Nei, F_ST and F_IT, AMOVA, and the PCoA were calculated using data from four transferred microsatellites. Results were similar to those obtained using species-specific primers. Both datasets (from transferred and species-specific primers) indicated that E. uniflora populations of the Atlantic Forest are unstructured and have high genetic diversity. The results of our study indicate that transferability of microsatellite markers is an economic and powerful way to obtain genetic information of Myrtaceae species of the Atlantic Forest, and consequently, will aid in the conservation of these species and the biome.

Management strategies for biosphere reserves need to be locally linked, acknowledging the interests and expectations of local stakeholders, as their participation is crucial for effective resource conservation, particularly in the case of subsistence resource management. In this paper we present a novel qualitative analysis tool, called a linkage matrix, for evaluating the social linkage of biosphere reserve management instruments. As a case study we considered wildlife use for subsistence purposes in the context of Los Petenes Biosphere Reserve (LPBR), located in the northwest of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Based on official and ethnographic data on traditional wildlife use in two Maya communities neighboring the reserve, we documented its Management Program's degree of social linkage, and identified actions to improve its implementation in the zone of influence of the protected area. Based on the linkage matrix, the reserve Management Program was found to be highly inclusive, taking into account 64% of the interests and expectations identified by local peasant-hunters regarding wildlife. Nevertheless, marked deficiencies were identified in the implementation of the reserve's management instrument, which limited the effectiveness of the protected area for conservation. The linkage matrix enabled the identification of possible lines of action for improving both the specific content of the Management Program and its implementation regarding wildlife use. Based on a) the results of the linkage matrix in LPBR, b) the objectives of biosphere reserves aimed at conservation and development, and c) the requirement for biosphere reserves to implement an official management instrument, we highlight the scope of applicability and the contribution of our analysis tool, which offers a means for approaching the social linkage of biosphere reserves not only in Mesoamerica but around the world.

One aspect of cantharids that has received little attention is the analysis of temporal diversity patterns. For an approximation to this aspect, temporal variation in richness, abundance and temporal turnover in monthly species composition were analyzed for seven assemblages of Cantharidae associated to the Tropical Dry Forest (TDF), in Mexico. A search was also made for processes associated. High species richness and abundance for the rain season, high dissimilarity among the months of the inter-seasonal period, and common patterns of diversity in the assemblages, regardless of the species they included, were expected. The seven assemblages clearly displayed a seasonal pattern of abundance associated with the rain season, but the total expression of seasonality in each assemblage was determined by asynchronous emergence of genera and species, in addition to high temporal turnover in species composition. With few exceptions, abundance, richness and temporal turnover showed statistically significant correlation with variation in precipitation; temperature had apparently little or no influence. The results suggest that adult emergence could be determined by host plant phenology and, indirectly, by abiotic factors such as precipitation. The importance of conducting more comprehensive studies to provide accurate evidence to characterize temporal patterns of diversity in TDF insect assemblages and associated processes, not just indicating the presence-absence of species at given times and places is emphasized.

The diversity of avian populations in the Madre de Dios region of Peru is currently threatened by deforestation and other anthropogenic factors. In this study we assessed differences in bird species composition in two major types of tropical forests: floodplain and terra-firme forest. Abundance of groups of behaviourally similar species showed a higher presence of certain feeding guilds in either floodplain forests or terra-firme forest, whereas no difference in species richness was found. Analysis of the relative reproductive investment (RRI) of these tropical birds showed significant differences between habitats and among families and feeding guilds. Comparison of these families and feeding guilds to their relatives in temperate regions showed that neotropical birds have a smaller RRI, due to both smaller clutch sizes and lower egg mass, even when there are more broods per season. Quantification of RRI as used in this study can be useful to indicate bird species' susceptibility to anthropogenic factors in various habitats.

This study evaluated the influence of vegetation structure on bird diversity, guilds, and the richness and composition of species in different successional stages of the subtropical Atlantic rain forest. Much of the land that was formerly agricultural in the Brazilian Atlantic rain forest region is now given over to secondary forests. The habitat structure of these successional forests vary and are influenced by time, historical use and local variables, all of which affect bird assemblies. Sampling of bird species was carried out through audio-visual point counts conducted in forests varying from six years after abandonment to old-growth areas. Forests in which the point counts were conducted were further classified into initial, intermediate and advanced stages according to 11 vegetation structural variables, through cluster analyses. The study found that bird richness and diversity were similar between initial and intermediate stages, but higher in advanced areas. Bird species composition differed between the initial and advanced stages, whereas the guild composition of initial forests differed in both intermediate and advanced stages. Late successional forests had more heterogeneous habitats, and some species and guilds were found only in this stage. However, bird diversity and species and guild composition were similar in intermediate and advanced forests, emphasizing the importance of successional forests for conservation efforts, especially when they are located near old-growth forests and conservation units. The recovery patterns of the successional forests studied indicate a great potential for the natural regeneration of the Atlantic rain forest, at least in areas where slash-and-burn agriculture was the previous landuse.

The illegal ivory market poses a serious threat of extinction to the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Conservation efforts to protect elephants are challenging due to their vast habitat range. Conservation efforts focused on high risk areas provide a more efficient management method than randomly patrolling entire habitat areas. The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is having a profound effect on conservationists' abilities to detect and stop poachers. This study provides methods for identifying high risk elephant poaching areas and for modeling drone surveillance capabilities. Point pattern analyses were conducted to identify spatial distribution patterns of elephant poaching incidents in the Tsavo National Parks area in Kenya. We performed geospatial analyses on the physical environment to create a risk map based on how roads, water features, and land cover correlate to poaching incidents. We also modeled drone flight paths for surveillance of high risk areas based on aircraft flight characteristics and the horizontal field of view for a selected infrared camera. We conclude that poaching incidents were geographically clustered and followed a deterministic (predictive) process. Poaching incidents correlated with close proximity to roads and water features, and were predominately upon specific land cover types. Drone flight modeling determined the number of flights and duration necessary to cover a specific high risk area. The procedures discussed can be applied using a combination of both GIS software and freely available statistical analysis software. The analysis and risk identification will enable conservation groups with limited budgets to improve the efficiency of their anti-poaching efforts.

Forest loss and fragmentation change the dynamics and structure of remnant populations, ultimately affecting key processes with implications for ecosystem functioning. Fruit consumption has important consequences for seed dispersal, maintaining the plant demography, which is also critical to the populations of animals that utilize them for resources. Therefore, understanding how forest cover reduction affects fruit consumption and, consequently, seed dispersal is essential to informing conservation policy for the remaining forest patches. This study was conducted in 20 forest sites with varying amounts of forest cover (from 6% - 85%) located in the Atlantic forest of southern Bahia, Brazil. We investigated whether forest loss and local bird diversity affected fruit consumption rates in the forest edge and interior. We used artificial fruit to estimate fruit consumption by birds. At each site, we set up 14 experimental stations, one located on the forest edge (∼3m) and the others in the forest interior (75 m), each one composed of 15 artificial fruits fixed to a plant. Our results showed that forest loss and the reduction of bird abundance led to a decrease in fruit consumption in the forest interiors, but not on the forest edges. This verifies that forest cover loss results in changes in fruit consumption, and has important consequences for seed dispersal by birds in forest remnants.