The introduction of auxin herbicide weed control systems has led to increased occurrence of crop injury in susceptible soybeans and cotton. Off-target exposure to sublethal concentrations of dicamba can occur at varying growth stages, which may affect crop response. Field experiments were conducted in Mississippi in 2014, 2015, and 2016 to characterize cotton response to a sublethal concentration of dicamba equivalent to 1/16X the labeled rate. Weekly applications of dicamba at 35 g ae ha^-1were made to separate sets of replicated plots immediately following planting until 14 wk after emergence (WAE). Exposure to dicamba from 1 to 9 WAE resulted in up to 32% visible injury, and exposure from 7 to 10 WAE delayed crop maturity. Exposure from 8 to 10 and 13 WAE led to increased cotton height, while an 18% reduction in machine-harvested yield resulted from exposure at 6 WAE. Cotton exposure at 3 to 9 WAE reduced the seed cotton weight partitioned to position 1 fruiting sites, while exposure at 3 to 6 WAE also reduced yield in position 2 fruiting sites. Exposure at 2, 3, and 5 to 7 WAE increased the percent of yield partitioned to vegetative branches. An increase in percent of yield partitioned to plants with aborted terminals occurred following exposure from 3 to 7 WAE and corresponded with reciprocal decreases in yield partitioned to positional fruiting sites. Minimal effects were observed on fiber quality, except for decreases in fiber length uniformity resulting from exposure at 9 and 10 WAE.

Nomenclature: Dicamba; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L.; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Increased use of dicamba and/or glyphosate in dicamba/glyphosate-tolerant soybean might affect many sensitive crops, including potato. The objective of this study was to determine the growth and yield of ‘Russet Burbank’ potato grown from seed tubers (generation 2) from mother plants (generation 1) treated with dicamba (4, 20, and 99 g ae ha^-1), glyphosate (8, 40, and 197 g ae ha^-1), or a combination of dicamba and glyphosate during tuber initiation. Generation 2 tubers were planted near Oakes and Inkster, ND, in 2016 and 2017, at the same research farm where the generation 1 tubers were grown the previous year. Treatment with 99 g ha^-1dicamba, 197 g ha^-1glyphosate, or 99 g ha^-1dicamba + 197 g ha^-1glyphosate caused emergence of generation 2 plants to be reduced by up to 84%, 86%, and 87%, respectively, at 5 wk after planting. Total tuber yield of generation 2 was reduced up to 67%, 55%, and 68% when 99 g ha^-1dicamba, 197 g ha^-1glyphosate, or 99 g ha^-1 dicamba + 197 g ha^-1 glyphosate was applied to generation 1 plants, respectively. At each site year, 197 g ha^-1 glyphosate reduced total yield and marketable yield, while 99 g ha^-1 dicamba reduced total yield and marketable yield in some site-years. This study confirms that exposure to glyphosate and dicamba of potato grown for potato seed tubers can negatively affect the growth and yield potential of the subsequently grown daughter generation.

Nomenclature: Dicamba; glyphosate; potato, Solanum tuberosum L; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr

It is well established that soybean that does not contain the dicamba-resistant (DR) trait is highly sensitive to off-target exposure to dicamba. However, there is limited information on the effect of low doses of dicamba plus glyphosate mixtures on dicamba-sensitive soybean—a mixture likely to be used on a vast acreage of dicamba/glyphosate-resistant soybean. The objective of this research was to examine leaf and pod malformation, along with height and yield effects, when dicamba, glyphosate, or a mixture of the two was applied to soybean sensitive to both dicamba and glyphosate at sublethal doses. Field applications were made at three growth stages (R1, R3, and R5) at multiple locations. Two glyphosate rates (1/64 and 1/256 of the labeled rate of 870 g ae ha ^-1) and two dicamba rates (1/64 and 1/256 of the labeled rate of 560 g ae ha ^-1) were used. Adding glyphosate to dicamba increased leaf malformation by 6% more than dicamba alone when applied at the R1 soybean growth stage. After R3 applications, pod malformation was 10% greater in treatments containing dicamba and glyphosate than dicamba alone. Applications at R5 showed minimal leaf and pod malformation. Seed from field trials was planted in the greenhouse to evaluate the offspring. The number of offspring plants showing dicamba-like symptomology was not increased with the addition of glyphosate to dicamba. Overall, injury to offspring was similar in dicamba alone and dicamba plus glyphosate treatments; however, the number of plants injured increased when parent plants were exposed to sublethal doses of dicamba at R3 and R5 compared with R1 growth-stage exposure. Vigor was reduced in dicamba-containing treatments, but not glyphosate-alone treatments. Glyphosate addition to dicamba had no effect on vigor of soybean offspring. Although there is increased injury to parent plants when glyphosate is added to dicamba, this research demonstrates that glyphosate does not contribute to the negative effects of dicamba on soybean offspring.

Nomenclature: Dicamba; glyphosate; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr

Soybean with resistance to dicamba (DR soybean) and glyphosate and cotton with resistance to glyphosate, glufosinate, and dicamba were recently commercialized in the United States and have been readily adopted. To evaluate results of over-the-top application of dicamba in DR crops, field studies were designed to examine off-target movement using proposed sprayer setup recommendations. Association analysis and nonlinear regression techniques were used to examine the effects of 26 field-scale drift trials conducted in 2014 and 2015 during soybean reproductive development (R1 through R6). The greatest predictors (injury, height reduction) of soybean yield reduction generally occurred and had steeper relationships after drift events at the R1 growth stage than at later stages. Using non-DR soybean as an indicator, dicamba was documented to move as much as 152m from the application area (distance to 5% injury). Instances of height reduction (5%) differed among growth stages, with the greatest distance occurring at R1 (83.4 m). Soybean yield reduction was erratic, with the greatest distance to 5% loss in yield occurring at 42.8 m after an R1 drift event. Overall, the data suggest floweringstage soybean is more sensitive than later reproductive soybean to injury, height reductions, and yield loss. Average and maximum wind speeds did not account for the injury documented from dicamba, and it is hypothesized that other meteorological variables also play a notable role in dicamba off-target movement as well as growing conditions following exposure. With concerns surrounding off-target movement of dicamba, proper stewardship of this new technology will be key to its longevity.

Nomenclature: dicamba; glufosinate; glyphosate; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L.; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.

In the occurrence of dicamba drift, it is not well understood what measurements from soybean plants would correlate with damage to soybean offspring; therefore, possible relationships are of great interest. Sixteen drift trials were established in 2014 and 2015 at the Northeast Research and Extension Center in Keiser, AR. A single 8-m-wide by 30- or 60-mlong pass with a high-clearance sprayer was made in each soybean field, resulting in a dicamba drift event. Seeds were collected from plants in each drift trial and planted in the field in 2015 and 2016. Data were subjected to correlation analysis to determine pairwise associations among parent and offspring observations. Auxin-like symptomology in offspring consistent with dicamba, primarily as leaf cupping, appeared in plots at the unifoliate and first trifoliate stages. Auxin-like symptoms were more prevalent in offspring collected from plants from later reproductive stages as opposed to early reproductive stages. The highest correlation coefficients occurred when parent plants were treated at the R5 growth stage. Parent mature pod malformation was correlated with offspring emergence (r= - 0.37, P = 0.0082), vigor (r= - 0.57, P ≤⃒ 0.0001), injury (r =0.93, P ≤⃒ 0.0001), and percent of plants injured (r=0.92, P ≤⃒ 0.0001). This research documents that soybean damaged from dicamba drift during the R1 to R6 growth stages can negatively affect offspring and that occurrence of pod malformation after dicamba drift at the R5 growth stage may be indicative of injury to the offspring.

Nomenclature: Dicamba; glyphosate; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.

It is well established that dicamba can cause severe injury to soybean that is not resistant to dicamba. Dicamba-resistant (DR) cotton became available in 2015, followed by DR soybean in 2016; in late 2016 came the release of new dicamba formulations approved for topical use in cotton and soybeans. Until this approval, use of dicamba was limited to primarily corn, small grains, range and pasture, and eco-fallow acres. Hence, studies were conducted in 2015 and 2016 to examine off-target movement of two dicamba formulations using non-DR soybean as a bio-indicator. Diglycolamine (DGA) and N,N-Bis(3-aminopropyl)methylamine (BAPMA) dicamba were applied simultaneously at 560 g ae ha^–1 in the center of two side-byside 8-ha fields to vegetative glufosinate-resistant soybean. On the same day, a rate response experiment was established encompassing nine different dicamba rates of each formulation. Results from the rate response experiment indicate that soybean is equally sensitive to DGA and BAPMA dicamba. In 2015, a rain event occurring 6 to 8 h after application of the large drift trial probably limited off-target movement by incorporating some of the herbicide into the soil. As a result, secondary drift was less in 2015 than in 2016. However, minimal secondary injury (<5%) occurred 12m farther into DGA dicamba plots in 2015. In 2016, secondary movement was decreased by 72m when BAPMA dicamba was used compared to DGA dicamba. Appreciable secondary movement of both DGA and BAPMA dicamba is possible following in-crop applications of either formulated product to soybean in early to mid-summer. Additionally, the risk for secondary movement of BAPMA dicamba is slightly less than for DGA dicamba.

Nomenclature: Dicamba; glufosinate; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L.; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Chemical weed control remains a widely used component of integrated weed management strategies because of its cost-effectiveness and rapid removal of crop pests. Additionally, dicamba-plus-glyphosate mixtures are a commonly recommended herbicide combination to combat herbicide resistance, specifically in recently commercially released dicamba-tolerant soybean and cotton. However, increased spray drift concerns and antagonistic interactions require that the application process be optimized to maximize biological efficacy while minimizing environmental contamination potential. Field research was conducted in 2016, 2017, and 2018 across three locations (Mississippi, Nebraska, and North Dakota) for a total of six site-years. The objectives were to characterize the efficacy of a range of droplet sizes [150 μm (Fine) to 900 μm (Ultra Coarse)] using a dicamba-plus-glyphosate mixture and to create novel weed management recommendations utilizing pulse-width modulation (PWM) sprayer technology. Results across pooled site-years indicated that a droplet size of 395 μm (Coarse) maximized weed mortality from a dicamba-plus-glyphosate mixture at 94 L ha^–1. However, droplet size could be increased to 620 μm (Extremely Coarse) to maintain 90% of the maximum weed mortality while further mitigating particle drift potential. Although generalized droplet size recommendations could be created across site-years, optimum droplet sizes within each site-year varied considerably and may be dependent on weed species, geographic location, weather conditions, and herbicide resistance(s) present in the field. The precise, site-specific application of a dicamba-plus-glyphosate mixture using the results of this research will allow applicators to more effectively utilize PWM sprayers, reduce particle drift potential, maintain biological efficacy, and reduce the selection pressure for the evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds.

Off-target movement of dicamba and 2,4-D may injure and reduce the yield of many fruit and vegetable crops, impacting specialty crop producers and herbicide applicators alike. Two field experiments were established, using plant growth regulator–resistant soybean herbicide technologies, to evaluate drift and carryover risks to horseradish production. The drift experiment was conducted in 2015 and 2016 to evaluate impact of dicamba and 2,4-D simulated drift on horseradish production with a mid-POST application in soybean. Simulated drift rates were 1/10,000X, 1/1,000X, and 1/100X, with 1/2X, 1X, and 2X of standard application rates. Injury and yield loss was greater following application of 2,4-D than with dicamba. Yield reductions were observed beginning at the 1/1,000X rate of 2,4-D, with complete crop loss occurring when rates exceed 1/2X. In comparison, dicamba only reduced yields when applied at the 1X and 2X rates. Only horseradish roots from plants treated with dicamba at the 2X rate had greater dicamba residue than the nontreated control, and the amount detected, 0.32 parts per billion (ppb), was lower than the EPA tolerance of 100 ppb in root crops. There was little to no harvestable tissue for 2,4-D residue analysis for plants treated with 2,4-D at rates above 1/2X. The carryover experiment was a 2-yr rotational evaluation conducted in 2014, 2015, and 2016 to assess dicamba carryover to horseradish following application to dicamba-resistant soybean the previous season. Observations taken at 4, 6, and 8 wk after planting indicated no significant horseradish injury, nor was height, stand, or root weight reduced. These results suggest that horseradish growers should have few concerns about injury from dicamba drift or carryover. While 2,4-D applicators may need to be cautious when making applications near horseradish fields, 2,4-D may be an effective tool for controlling volunteer horseradish in 2,4-D–resistant soybean.

Nomenclature: 2,4-D; dicamba; horseradish, Armoracia rusticana G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb ARWLA; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.

All herbicides will move off-target to sensitive crops when not applied correctly. Therefore, low-dose applications of flumioxazin and metribuzin were evaluated in soybean at the unifoliate, V2, and V4 growth stages. Rates evaluated were 12.5%, 25%, and 50% of the labeled use rates of 72 and 316 g ai ha^–1 of flumioxazin and metribuzin, respectively. Flumioxazin injury was characterized by necrosis and visible height and width reduction. Injury increased with rate 3 d after treatment (DAT), with unifoliate, V2, and V4 soybean injured 15% to 30%, 18% to 27%, and 5% to 8%, respectively. Unifoliate and V4 soybean were injured more than V4 soybean 3 to 14 DAT, but injury decreased to <5% by 42 DAT. Soybean yields in the flumioxazin study were 92% to 96% of the nontreated, resulting in a yield loss of 196 to 393 kg ha^–1 and a revenue loss of 71 to 141 US$ ha^–1. Metribuzin injury was primarily chlorosis with necrosis and a visible reduction in soybean height and width. Soybean at the V2 growth stage was injured 14% more than V4 soybean 3 DAT, regardless of metribuzin rate. Injury to V2 and V4 soybean was similar 14 DAT, with injury of 21% to 40% across rates. Soybean injury when treated at the V2 and V4 growth stages was 6% to 29% 42 DAT compared to unifoliate soybean at 0 to 17%. Soybean yields in the metribuzin study yields were 96% to 98% of the nontreated. However, a 2% to 4% reduction equates to a loss of 90 to 180 kg ha^–1 and a revenue loss of 32 to 65 US$ ha^–1. Unifoliate and V2 soybean are more sensitive to a low dose of flumioxazin POST, and V2 and V4 soybean are more sensitive to a low dose of metribuzin POST. Injury and the impact on soybean growth could potentially cause economic loss for a soybean producer.

Nomenclature:Flumioxazin; metribuzin; soybean, Glycine max L.

Due to depressed corn and soybean prices over the last few years in the United States, growers in Nebraska are showing interest in no-tillage (hereafter referred to as no-till) conventional (non–genetically engineered [non-GE]) soybean production. Due to the increasing number of herbicide-resistant weeds in the United States, weed control in no-till non-GE soybean using POST herbicides is a challenge. The objectives of this study were to compare PRE-only, PRE followed by (fb) POST, and PRE fb POST with residual (POST-WR) herbicide programs for Palmer amaranth and velvetleaf control and soybean injury and yield, as well as to estimate the gross profit margins and benefit–cost ratio of herbicide programs. A field experiment was conducted in 2016 and 2017 at Clay Center, NE. The PRE herbicides tested in this study resulted in ≥95% Palmer amaranth and velvetleaf control at 28 d after PRE (DAPRE). Averaged across the programs, the PRE-only program controlled Palmer amaranth 66%, whereas 86% and 97% control was obtained with the PRE fb POST and PRE fb POST-WR programs, respectively, at 28 d after POST (DAPOST). At 28 DAPOST, the PRE fb POST herbicide programs controlled velvetleaf 94%, whereas the PRE-only program resulted in 85% control. Mixing soil-residual herbicides with foliar-active POST programs did not improve velvetleaf control. Averaged across herbicide programs, PRE fb POST programs increased soybean yield by 10% and 41% in 2016 and 2017, respectively, over the PRE-only programs. Moreover, PRE fb POST-WR programs produced 7% and 40% higher soybean yield in 2016 and 2017, respectively, compared with the PRE fb POST programs. The gross profit margin (US$1,184.3 ha^-1) was highest under flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone (PRE) fb fluthiacet-methyl plus S-metolachlor/fomesafen (POST-WR) treatment; however, the benefit–cost ratio was highest (6.1) with the PRE-only program of flumioxazin/chlorimuron-ethyl.

Nomenclature: Chlorimuron-ethyl; flumioxazin; fluthiacetmethyl; fomesafen; pyroxasulfone; S-metolachlor; Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus Palmeri S. Watson; velvetleaf, Abutilon theophrasti Medik; corn, Zea mays L.; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr

Double-crop soybean after winter wheat is a component of many cropping systems across eastern and central Kansas. Until recently, control of Palmer amaranth and common waterhemp has been both easy and economical with the use of sequential applications of glyphosate in glyphosate-resistant soybean. Many populations of Palmer amaranth and common waterhemp have become resistant to glyphosate. During 2015 and 2016, a total of five field experiments were conducted near Manhattan, Hutchinson, and Ottawa, KS, to assess various non-glyphosate herbicide programs at three different application timings for the control of Palmer amaranth and waterhemp in double-crop soybean after winter wheat. Spring-POST treatments of pyroxasulfone (119 g ai ha^–1) and pendimethalin (1065 g ai ha^–1) were applied to winter wheat to evaluate residual control of Palmer amaranth and waterhemp. Less than 40% control of Palmer amaranth and waterhemp was observed in both treatments 2 wk after planting (WAP) double-crop soybean. Preharvest treatments of 2,4-D (561 g ae ha^–1) and flumioxazin (107 g ai ha^–1) were also applied to the winter wheat to assess control of emerged Palmer amaranth and waterhemp. 2,4-D resulted in highly variable Palmer amaranth and waterhemp control, whereas flumioxazin resulted in control similar to PRE treatments that contained paraquat (841 g ai ha^–1) plus residual herbicide(s). Excellent control of both species was observed 2 WAP with a PRE paraquat application; however, reduced control of Palmer amaranth and waterhemp was noted 8 WAP due to subsequent emergence. Results indicate that Palmer amaranth and waterhemp control was 85% or greater 8 WAP for PRE treatments that included a combination of paraquat plus residual herbicide(s). PRE treatments that did not include both paraquat and residual herbicide(s) did not provide acceptable control.

Nomenclature: 2,4-D; flumioxazin; glyphosate; paraquat; pendimethalin; pyroxasulfone; common waterhemp, Amaranthus rudis J. D. Sauer. AMATA; Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson AMAPA; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr; wheat, Triticum aestivum L

Double-crop grain sorghum after winter wheat harvest is a common cropping system in the southern plains region. Palmer amaranth is a troublesome weed in double-crop grain sorghum in Kansas. Populations resistant to various herbicides (e.g., atrazine, glyphosate, metsulfuron, pyrasulfotole) have made Palmer amaranth management even more difficult for producers. To evaluate control of atrazine-resistant and atrazine-susceptible Palmer amaranth in double-crop grain sorghum, we assessed 14 herbicide programs, of which 8 were PRE only and 6 were PRE followed by (fb) POST applications. Visible ratings of Palmer amaranth control were taken at 3 and 8 wk after planting (WAP) grain sorghum. PRE treatments containing very-long-chain fatty acid (VLCFA)–inhibiting herbicides provided 91% control of atrazine-resistant Palmer amaranth 3 WAP, and reduced weed density 8 WAP compared to atrazine-only PRE treatments. PRE fb POST treatments, especially those that included VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides, provided greater control (71% to 93%) of both atrazineresistant and atrazine-susceptible Palmer amaranth, respectively, at 8 WAP compared to PRE treatments alone (59% to 79%). These results demonstrated the utility of VLCFA-inhibiting herbicides applied PRE and in a layered PRE fb POST approach in controlling atrazineresistant Palmer amaranth, as well as the importance of an effective POST application following residual PRE herbicides for controlling both atrazine-resistant and atrazinesusceptible Palmer amaranth in double-crop grain sorghum.

Nomenclature: Atrazine; glyphosate; metsulfuron; pyrasulfotole; Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats.; grain sorghum, Sorghum bicolor L.; winter wheat, Triticum aestivum L.

Field research was conducted in 2012 and 2013 in Georgia, New York, and North Carolina to evaluate the effect of trifluralin PPI on turnip root production. Treatments included trifluralin PPI at 0, 0.42, 0.56, 0.84, 1.12, 1.68, 2.24, and 3.36 kg ai ha^-1. Aboveground injury to turnip varied by location and increased from 0% to 85% as trifluralin rate increased from 0.42 to 3.36 kg ha^-1. Trifluralin at 0.42 to 0.84 kg ha^-1 caused ≤7% injury, except at Clayton, NC, and Freeville, NY, where injury ≤32%. Trifluralin at 0.42 to 0.84 kg ha^-1 reduced turnip root yield ≤11% at all locations, except Clinton, NC, where yield was reduced 29% and 43% by 0.56 and 0.84 kg ha^-1, respectively. Turnip roots were not injured internally by trifluralin. Our research results suggest that up to 0.84 kg ha^-1 trifluralin PPI is safe to use in turnip roots.

Nomenclature: Trifluralin; turnip, Brassica rapa L. ‘Purple Top White Globe’

Studies were conducted to determine the tolerance of sweetpotato and Palmer amaranth control to a premix of flumioxazin and pyroxasulfone pretransplant (PREtr) followed by (fb) irrigation. Greenhouse studies were conducted in a factorial arrangement of four herbicide rates (flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone PREtr at 105/133 and 57/72 g ai ha^–1, Smetolachlor PREtr 803 g ai ha^–1, nontreated) by three irrigation timings [2, 5, and 14 d after transplanting (DAP)]. Field studies were conducted in a factorial arrangement of seven herbicide treatments (flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone PREtr at 40/51, 57/72, 63/80, and 105/133 g ha^–1, 107g ha^–1 flumioxazin PREtr fb 803 g ha^–1S-metolachlor 7 to 10 DAP, and season-long weedy and weed-free checks) by three 1.9-cm irrigation timings (0 to 2, 3 to 5, or 14 DAP). In greenhouse studies, flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone reduced sweetpotato vine length and shoot and storage root fresh biomass compared to the nontreated check and S-metolachlor. Irrigation timing had no influence on vine length and root fresh biomass. In field studies, Palmer amaranth control was≥91% season-long regardless of flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone rate or irrigation timing. At 38 DAP, sweetpotato injury was≤37 and≤9% at locations 1 and 2, respectively. Visual estimates of sweetpotato injury from flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone were greater when irrigation timing was delayed 3 to 5 or 14 DAP (22 and 20%, respectively) compared to 0 to 2 DAP (7%) at location 1 but similar at location 2. Irrigation timing did not influence no.1, jumbo, or marketable yields or root length-to-width ratio.With the exception of 105/133 g ha^–1, all rates of flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone resulted in marketable sweetpotato yield and root length-to-width ratio similar to flumioxazin fb S-metolachlor or the weed-free checks. In conclusion, flumioxazin/pyroxasulfone PREtr at 40/51, 57/72, and 63/80 g ha^–1 has potential for use in sweetpotato for Palmer amaranth control without causing significant crop injury and yield reduction.

Nomenclature: Flumioxazin; pyroxasulfone; S-metolachlor; Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus palmeri (S.) Watson AMAPA; sweetpotato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam

The objective for this study was to determine if POST-directed applications of flumioxazin reduce fruit yield for chile pepper produced on coarse- and fine-textured soils irrigated by furrow. This objective was addressed with a multiyear (2015, 2016, 2017) field study that compared flumioxazin effects on fruit yield against a commercial standard (POST-directed carfentrazone) and the absence of a POST-directed herbicide. The field study occurred at two university research farms that differed in soil texture. On fine-textured soil, treatments included the no POST–directed herbicide control and the following four POST-directed herbicides applied to raised beds: (1) flumioxazin at 107 g ai ha^–1 applied 4 wk after crop thinning, (2) carfentrazone at 35 g ai ha^–1 applied 4 wk after crop thinning, (3) flumioxazin at 70 g ai ha^–1 applied 4 and 6 wk after crop thinning, (4) carfentrazone at 35 g ai ha^–1 applied 4 and 6 wk after crop thinning. On coarse-textured soil, treatments included the no POST–directed herbicide control and the following three POST-directed herbicides applied 4 wk after crop thinning: (1) flumioxazin at 107 g ai ha^–1 applied to raised beds, (2) flumioxazin at 107 g ai ha^–1 applied to furrows, (3) carfentrazone at 35 g ai ha^–1 applied to raised beds. On fine-textured soil, treatment did not affect fruit yield. On coarse-textured soil, flumioxazin applied to furrows did not reduce fruit yield, but flumioxazin on raised beds reduced fruit yield of some cultivars in 2015 and 2017. Year-to-year variability in both flumioxazin-induced yield loss and soil characteristics suggested that chile pepper sensitivity to flumioxazin was negatively associated with soil organic matter content. In a follow-up greenhouse study, soil organic matter lessened flumioxazin-induced crop injury. In general, this study indicates that recommendations for POST-directed flumioxazin in New Mexico chile pepper will need to be soil-type specific.

Nomenclature: Carfentrazone; flumioxazin; chile pepper, Capsicum annuum L.

Preemergence herbicides are typically applied by broadcasting to the top of raised beds before laying the plastic mulch in plasticulture production systems. Broadleaf and grass emergence is limited to transplant holes in the mulch. As a result, most herbicides are applied under the mulch in locations where weeds cannot emerge and herbicides are unnecessary. To reduce this excessive off-target application, a precision hole-punch sprayer was developed at the University of Florida for use in plasticulture production systems. The technology facilitates the application of herbicides during the hole-punch operation immediately before transplant. Application of napropamide and S-metolachlor in an application volume of 233 L ha^–1 of water using the precision hole-punch applicator had no effect on tomato and bell pepper growth and yield. Equipment accuracy ranged from 55% to 90%. Preemergence herbicide use was reduced by 88% to 92% with no reduction in weed control. The hole-punch applicator is an effective way to reduce PRE herbicide use in transplant vegetables grown using the plasticulture production system.

Nomenclature: Napropamide; S-metolachlor; bell pepper, Capsicum annuum L.; tomato, Solanum lycopersicum L.

Field and greenhouse studies were conducted in 2016 and 2017 to determine sweetpotato tolerance to herbicides applied to plant propagation beds. Herbicide treatments included PRE application of flumioxazin (107 g ai ha^-1), S-metolachlor (800 g ai ha^-1), fomesafen (280 g ai ha^-1), flumioxazin plus S-metolachlor (107 g ai ha^-1 + 800 g ai ha^-1), fomesafen plus S-metolachlor (280 g ai ha^-1 + 800 g ai ha^-1), fluridone (1,120 or 2,240 g ai ha^-1), fluridone plus S-metolachlor (1,120 g ai ha^-1 + 800 g ai ha^-1), napropamide (1,120 g ai ha^-1), clomazone (420 g ai ha^-1), linuron (560 g ai ha^-1), linuron plus S-metolachlor (560 g ai ha^-1 + 800 g ai ha^-1), bicyclopyrone (38 or 49.7 g ai ha^-1), pyroxasulfone (149 g ai ha^-1), pre-mix of flumioxazin plus pyroxasulfone (81.8 g ai ha^-1 + 104.2 g ai ha^-1), or metribuzin (294 g ai ha^-1). Paraquat plus non-ionic surfactant (280 g ai ha^-1 + 0.25% v/v) POST was also included. After plants in the propagation bed were cut and sweetpotato slip number, length, and weight had been determined, the slips were then transplanted to containers and placed either in the greenhouse or on an outdoor pad to determine any effects from the herbicide treatments on initial sweetpotato growth. Sweetpotato slip number, length, and/or weight were affected by flumioxazin with or without S-metolachlor, S-metolachlor with or without fomesafen, clomazone, and all fluridone treatments. In the greenhouse studies, initial root growth of plants after transplanting was inhibited by fluridone (1,120 g ai ha^-1) and fluridone plus S-metolachlor. However, by 5 wk after transplanting few differences were observed between treatments. Fomesafen, linuron with or without S-metolachlor, bicyclopyrone (38 or 49.7 g ai ha^-1), pyroxasulfone with or without flumioxazin, metribuzin, and paraquat did not cause injury to sweetpotato slips in any of the studies conducted.

Nomenclature: Bicyclopyrone; clomazone; flumioxazin; fluridone; fomesafen; linuron; S-metolachlor; metribuzin; napropamide; paraquat; pyroxasulfone; sweetpotato, Ipomoea batatas L.

Chloris spp. are warm-season grasses that outcompete crops for scarce resources throughout Australia. In Queensland, mild winters and increased adoption of conservation tillage practices have led to an increase of this warm-season grass family in winter crops. The objective of this study is to understand whether droplet size (nozzle type) effects herbicide efficacy of summer perennial grasses, as previous research found no effect of droplet size (nozzle type) on herbicide efficacy of winter annual grasses. A study to compare droplet-size (nozzle type) effects on control of windmillgrass and its domesticated relative, rhodesgrass, was conducted at the University of Queensland in Gatton, QLD, Australia. Results showed little difference in dry weight reductions for windmillgrass or rhodesgrass across droplet size (nozzle type). Paraquat applications with the TTI nozzle resulted in significantly lower dry weight reductions compared with other droplet-size sprays (nozzle types) for rhodesgrass. Glyphosate, imazamox plus imazapyr, and clodinafop resulted in commercially acceptable control for both species, regardless of the droplet size (nozzle type) selected, indicating droplet size (nozzle type) has relatively little impact on the efficacy of these herbicides. Proper nozzle selection can result in control of Chloris spp., a hard to control weed species, while reducing the occurrence of spray drift to nearby sensitive areas.

Nomenclature: Clodinafop; glyphosate; imazamox; imazapyr; paraquat; rhodesgrass, Chloris gayana Kunth; windmillgrass, Chloris truncata R. Br

Tall weeds escaping early weed management, such as weeds resistant to one or multiple herbicides, are an increasing concern. When weeds reach a certain size, few options other than hand weeding will limit the production and dispersal of seeds. The objective of this project was to evaluate the efficacy of the Bourquin Organic Weed Puller® (a rotating series of wheels that grab and pull) at removing tall weeds before they shed seeds in soybean and adzuki bean. Trials were set up in Canada at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada research farms at Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu (SJR), QC (2 yr), and Harrow (HAR), ON (1 yr), on a loamy and a sandy soil, respectively. The experimental design included crops of different potential heights (different soybean cultivars and adzuki bean), two weed species per location (common lambsquarters [both locations] and common ragweed or redroot pigweed at HAR), and two pulling dates. The set-up also included weedy and herbicide-treated control plots. Weeds overtopping the crop canopy by at least 10 cm were tagged and characterized. Damage from the weed puller was rated as 1, pulled (desired effect); 2, cut; 3, folded; 4, stripped; and 5, intact. The seed production of damaged and intact weeds was also recorded. Less than one-third of common ragweed or redroot pigweed plants were pulled during any treatment combination. The highest pulling rates were observed for common lambsquarters at SJR (43%), but very few were pulled at HAR (3.1% max). Pulling rates were not high enough to potentially control seed inputs from herbicide-resistant populations, and successfully pulled common lambsquarters left on the ground produced thousands of viable seeds.

Nomenclature: Common lambsquarters, Chenopodium album L. CHEAL; common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. AMBEL; redroot pigweed, Amaranthus retroflexus L. AMARE; adzuki bean, Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr

Timely herbicide applications for no-till soybean can be challenging given the diverse communities of both winter and summer annual weeds that are often present. Research was conducted to compare various approaches for nonselective and preplant weed control for notill soybean. Nonselective herbicide application timings of fall (with and without a residual herbicide) followed by early-spring (4 wk before planting), late-spring (1 to 2 wk before planting), or sequential-spring applications (4 wk before planting and at planting) were compared. Spring applications also included a residual herbicide. For consistent control of winter annual weeds, two herbicide applications were needed, either a fall application followed by a spring application or sequential-spring applications. When a fall herbicide application did not include a residual herbicide, greater winter annual weed control resulted from early- or sequential-spring treatments. However, application timings that effectively controlled winter annual weeds did not effectively control summer annual weeds that have a prolonged emergence period. Palmer amaranth and large crabgrass control at 4 wk after planting was better when the spring residual treatment (chlorimuron plus metribuzin) was applied 1 to 2 wk before planting or at planting, compared with 4 wk before planting. Results indicate that in order to optimize control, herbicide application programs in soybean should coincide with seasonal growth cycles of winter and summer annual weeds.

Nomenclature: Chlorimuron; metribuzin; large crabgrass, Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.; Palmer amaranth, Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr

Field studies were conducted to determine the possible rate and timing of nicosulfuron to suppress annual ryegrass (ARG) seeded as a cover crop at the time of corn planting without affecting corn performance near Ridgetown, ON, Canada, in 2016 and 2017. Nicosulfuron was applied at rates from 0.8 to 50 g ai ha^–1when the ARG was at the two- to three- or fourto five-leaf stages, or approximately 3 or 4 wk after emergence of both corn and ARG. There were no differences between the two application timings in grain yield responses or ARG suppression. As the rate of nicosulfuron increased from 0.8 to 50 g ai ha^–1, ARG was suppressed 6% to 76% and 5% to 96%, at 1 and 4 wk after application (WAA), respectively. At 4 WAA, ARG biomass decreased from 29 to 1 g m^–2as the rate of nicosulfuron increased from 0.8 to 50 g ai ha^–1, compared to 36 g m^–2in the untreated control. Where nicosulfuron was not applied to ARG, grain corn yield was reduced by 6% compared to the ARG-free control; similar effects on corn yield were observed with nicosulfuron at the lowest rate applied at 0.8 g ai ha^–1. Grain corn yield was reduced by 2.5% with the application of nicosulfuron at 25 g ai ha^–1 (label rate for corn) compared to no ARG control, but this was not statistically significant. This study identified rates of nicosulfuron that suppressed ARG when emerged approximately the same day as corn, but there was evidence that grain corn yields were lowered because of interference, possibly during the critical weed control period. Based on this study, an ARG cover crop should not be seeded at the same time as corn unless one is willing to accept a risk for corn grain yield losses for the sake of the cover crop.

Nomenclature: Nicosulfuron; annual ryegrass, Lolium multiflorum Lam.; corn, Zea mays L.

During 2016 and 2017, four field experiments were conducted at Huron Research Station near Exeter, ON, to evaluate the sensitivity of dry bean grown under a strip-tillage cropping system, to potential herbicides for the control of glyphosate-resistant (GR) horseweed. At 8 wk after emergence (WAE), saflufenacil, metribuzin, saflufenacil + metribuzin, 2,4-D ester, flumetsulam, cloransulam-methyl, and chlorimuron-ethyl caused 13% to 32%, 8% to 52%, 32% to 53%, 5% to 7%, 13% to 21%, 16% to 29%, and 23% to 43% visible injury in dry beans, respectively. Saflufenacil decreased aboveground biomass 65% in kidney bean and 80% in white bean. Metribuzin decreased biomass 82% in kidney bean and 50% in white bean. Saflufenacil + metribuzin decreased biomass 88% in kidney bean, 68% in small red bean, and 80% in white bean. Chlorimuron-ethyl decreased biomass 40% in white bean. There was no decrease in dry bean biomass with the other herbicides evaluated. Metribuzin and saflufenacil + metribuzin reduced kidney bean seed yield 72% and 76%, respectively. Saflufenacil + metribuzin, flumetsulam, cloransulam-methyl, and chlorimuron-ethyl reduced small red bean seed yield 39%, 27%, 30%, and 54%, respectively. Saflufenacil, metribuzin, saflufenacil + metribuzin, flumetsulam, cloransulam-methyl, and chlorimuron-ethyl reduced seed yield of white bean 52%, 32%, 62%, 33%, 42%, and 62%, respectively. There was no decrease in dry bean yield with the other herbicides evaluated. Among herbicides evaluated, 2,4-D ester caused the least crop injury with no effect in dry bean seed yield.

Nomenclature: 2,4-D ester, chlorimuron-ethyl; cloransulammethyl; flumetsulam, metribuzin; saflufenacil; horseweed, Conyza canadensis L.; dry bean, Phaseolus vulgaris L.; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr.

Some fineleaf fescues have demonstrated tolerance to glyphosate, and this broad-spectrum, nonselective herbicide would be a valuable tool for controlling various weeds in low-input turf areas. A study was conducted to evaluate tolerance of 56 fineleaf fescue varieties to glyphosate applied at 0.0, 0.4, 0.6, and 1.0 kg ae ha^-1. The defunct 2003 National Turfgrass Evaluation Program fineleaf fescue variety trial at the Turfgrass Research Center in Blacksburg, VA, provided main plots on which glyphosate treatments were randomized independently on May 16, 2011, and June 26, 2013. Hard (HF) and sheep fescues (SF) were the most tolerant to glyphosate, followed by strong creeping red fescues (STC) and slender creeping red fescues (SLC). The most sensitive species was Chewings fescue (CH), most varieties of which were injured 50% to 65% per kilogram of glyphosate at 2 wk after treatment (WAT). At 8 WAT, 12 of 14 CH varieties were injured over 30% per kilogram of glyphosate, but predicted injury and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of all varieties were acceptable at a more typical 0.5 to 0.7 kg ha^-1 glyphosate rate. Nontreated seed head density of CH varieties ranged from 87 and 126 seed heads m^-2 at 8 WAT compared with 2.8 to 42 seed heads m^-2 from HF varieties. Glyphosate at 0.15 to 0.5 kg ha^-1 eliminated 90% of seed heads regardless of fineleaf fescue variety. These data suggest that all fineleaf fescue varieties are inherently tolerant of glyphosate at rates at or below approximately 0.7 kg ha^-1, but can be generally separated from most to least tolerant in the following order: HF, SF, STC, SLC, and CH.

Nomenclature: Glyphosate; Chewings fescue, Festuca rubra L. commutata (Thuill.) Nyman; slender creeping red fescue, Festuca rubra L. ssp. litoralis (G.F.W. Meyer) Auquier; strong creeping red fescue, Festuca rubra L. rubra; fineleaf fescues, Festuca spp.; hard fescue, Festuca longifolia Thuill.; sheep fescue, Festuca ovina L.

Great Plains yucca is a native species that competes with forage plants for space and water and at high densities may warrant control. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of seven herbicides applied in the spring or fall for Great Plains yucca control. Six foliar herbicides applied by ground application at 187 L ha^-1 spray volume, one herbicide applied to individual plant whorls, and a nontreated check were established in June and September of 2009 and 2011. Percent mortality was determined 12 to 16 mo after herbicide application. Most herbicides gave similar control between the 2 yr, with triclopyr in diesel applied to individual plant whorls at 10 g L^-1 providing the greatest control at 83%. Most herbicides applied in June near the blooming stage of Great Plains yucca were more effective than September treatments. June treatments providing the greatest reduction in yucca densities were metsulfuron + dicamba + 2,4-D amine + 2,4-D low volatile ester (LVE) at 21 + 113 + 325 + 431 g ae ha^-1, metsulfuron + aminopyralid + triclopyr at 49 + 9 + 227 g ha^-1, metsulfuron + chlorsulfuron + 2,4-D LVE at 34 + 11 + 431 g ha^-1, and metsulfuron + aminopyralid + 2,4-D LVE at 49 + 9 + 431 g ha^-1. A single application of a foliar herbicide provided a maximum of 72% mortality of Great Plains yucca, suggesting that repeat application may be necessary to achieve optimum control.

Nomenclature: 2,4-D; aminopyralid; chlorsulfuron; dicamba; metsulfuron; triclopyr; Great Plains yucca, Yucca glauca Nutt.

Goosegrass is a weedy C₄ species throughout the world and a major pest in turfgrass systems. Further research is needed to characterize morphological events of goosegrass germinating in late summer to enhance long-term management programs. The objective of this study was to determine whether goosegrass germinating on August 15 will complete a life cycle before the first killing frost, typically November 15 in Clemson, SC. A biotype from Clemson, SC, was collected and a growth-chamber experiment was conducted to simulate autumn maximum and minimum temperatures. Culm, leaf, root, and raceme biomass measurements were recorded weekly, and growth curves were modeled. The inflection point (i.e., point of maximum growth) occurred for the following growth parameters: culm dry weight at 26.5 d after emergence (DAE), leaf dry weight at 26.6 DAE, number of racemes per plant at 50.7 DAE, raceme dry weight (including germinable seed) at 56.0 DAE, and root dry weight at 42.1 DAE. The completion of the life cycle occurred on October 22 (68 DAE), approximately 3 wk before the typical first killing frost in Clemson, SC. In summary, turf managers need to address goosegrass that germinates through approximately the first week of September at this location to avoid production of viable seed.

Nomenclature: Goosegrass, Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.

Smellmelon is an invasive weed in the Golestan and Mazandran provinces of Iran. In a series of experiments, germination of freshly harvested seeds, cardinal temperatures, plant burial depth, and distribution and chemical control of smellmelon were evaluated to assist us in developing a management program to help growers manage this weed more effectively. The optimal seed germination temperature was estimated at 32.7 C by a two-piece segmented model. Mature fresh seeds of smellmelon exhibited no dormancy, whereas mucilage of the seed negatively affected germination. The greatest seed sowing depth from which seedlings emerged was 5 cm. Geographical distribution of smellmelon occurred up to an elevation of 350m above sea level, whereas the density of smellmelon decreased at elevations higher than 151 m. Imazethapyr reduced plant growth and the reproductive capacity of smellmelon. Germination of seed from smellmelon plants treated with imazethapyr was significantly reduced compared with seed treated with bentazon or bentazon plus acifluorfen. A combination of tillage of deeper than 5 cm, early planting time, and the use of imazethapyr can reduce smellmelon competition in various field crops.

Nomenclature: Acifluorfen; bentazon; imazethapyr; smellmelon; Cucumis melo L. var. agrestis Naudin

Carolina redroot is a common weed of New Jersey cranberry beds that competes with crops for nutritional resources but also serves as a food source for waterfowl. Greenhouse studies were conducted in 2017 in Chatsworth, NJ, to determine control of Carolina redroot aboveground vegetation and rhizome production with 10 herbicide active ingredients. Herbicides were applied as a single application on 10- to 15-cm-tall plants. Diquat at 560 g ai ha^-1and mesotrione at 280 or 560 g ai ha^-1controlled more than 90% of emerged shoots at 63 d after treatment (DAT). Aboveground vegetation control at 63 DAT reached 87% with 2,4-D and flumioxazin but was limited with glyphosate, not exceeding 40%. Mesotrione at 560 g ai ha^-1provided 98% control of roots and rhizomes (root/rhizome) at 63 DAT, a 10% increase compared with 280 g ai ha^-1; and 2,4-D (90%), glyphosate (87%), diquat (86%), and flumioxazin (85%) also showed excellent root/rhizome control. The greatest reduction of plant biomass compared with the nontreated check (UNT) was noted with 2,4-D, mesotrione at 280 g ai ha^-1and 560 g ai ha^-1, and diquat, with decreases from 73% to 80% for shoots and from 82% to 88% for roots/rhizomes. Glyphosate had less impact on shoot biomass reduction (-56%) but similar effect on root/rhizome dry weight (-79%) compared with 2,4-D, mesotrione, and diquat. Flumioxazin and fomesafen significantly reduced root/rhizome biomass by 78% and 72%, respectively. Concurrently, 2,4-D, flumioxazin, fomesafen, and diquat reduced the number of secondary shoots 70% to 90% compared with the UNT, whereas glyphosate and mesotrione completely inhibited emergence of new shoots. These data suggest that mesotrione applied POST provides excellent control of Carolina redroot. Future research should evaluate field applications of mesotrione in early summer when Carolina redroot regrowth occurs following the dissipation of PRE herbicide activity.

Nomenclature:2,4-D; diquat; flumioxazin; fomesafen; glyphosate; mesotrione; Carolina redroot, Lachnanthes caroliniana (Lam.) Dandy.; cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait

Glyphosate-resistant (GR) and glyphosate-tolerant weeds cause considerable yield losses and represent a growing threat to soybean production systems. Despite the relevance of this topic, few studies have evaluated the dispersal of these species in Brazil. The objective of this study was to evaluate the dispersal and frequency of known GR and glyphosate-tolerant weeds in soybean-producing microregions. A total of 2,481 interviews were conducted in different regions of Brazil. The interviews were stratified among 20 edaphoclimatic microregions (ECRs) to cover all of the country's soybean-producing regions. A minimum number of interviews was estimated to generate a margin of error of ≤⃒10% within the ECRs and ≤⃒5% in the country. The values of the farmers' responses were extrapolated to the total soybean production area of each ECR and the country as a whole, and the absolute values of each response were normalized as percentage values. The dispersal and management data demonstrate a loss of efficiency of glyphosate-resistance technology. Species that are naturally tolerant to glyphosate such as goosegrass, Commelina spp., and Ipomoea spp. had a greater presence in the ECRs, as did the resistant biotypes, particularly Conyza spp. and sourgrass, due to the large area cultivated with GR soybean, where glyphosate has been used with high frequency.

Nomenclature: Glyphosate; dayflower species, Commelina spp.; goosegrass, Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.; horseweed, Conyza spp; morningglory species, Ipomoea spp; sourgrass, Digitaria insularis (L.) Mez ex Ekman; soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr