The Caribbean is a mega-diverse and bio-geographically important region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands, and surrounding coastlines. Among the billions of aquatic species inhabiting this region, the mega-vertebrates stand out for their social, economic and ecologic relevance. However, the Caribbean has been threatened by climate change, poverty, pollution, environmental degradation and intense growth of the tourism industry, affecting megafauna species directly and indirectly. Population monitoring plays a critical role in an informed conservation process and helps guide management decisions at several scales. The aim of the present review was to critically examine the methods employed for monitoring marine megafauna in the Caribbean, so as to create a framework for future monitoring efforts. In total, 235 documents describing protocols for the monitoring of sirenians, cetaceans, elasmobranchs, sea turtles and crocodilians in the Caribbean region, were reviewed. The methods included community-based monitoring (interviews, citizen science and fisheries monitoring), aerial surveys (by manned and unmanned aerial vehicles), boat-based surveys (including manta tow, and side-scan sonars), land-based surveys, acoustic monitoring, underwater surveys, baited remote underwater video, mark–recapture, photo-identification and telemetry. Monitoring efforts invested on aquatic megafauna in the Caribbean have been highly different, with some species and/or groups being prioritised over others. The present critical review provides a country-based overview of the current and emerging methods for monitoring marine megafauna and a critical evaluation of their known advantages, disadvantages and biases.

Context. At some sites in southern Victoria, browsing pressure caused by high-density koala populations can result in defoliation of preferred browse trees. In extreme cases, this over-browsing can lead to widespread tree death and starvation of koalas. To reduce the potential for mortality of trees and koalas, a management strategy that includes fertility control of females and translocation of healthy individuals (male and female) has been adopted.

Aims. To compare the short- to medium-term survival and body condition of koalas translocated from over-browsed habitat and released into unoccupied (or nearly so) habitat with that of koalas left insitu in compromised habitat.

Methods. We monitored survival and body condition of 36 translocated koalas for 4–5 months after translocation relative to that of a control group (24 animals) left insitu. Koalas were recaptured and body condition measured (as a scaled body-mass index) ∼40 and 137 days after translocation. Additionally, GPS loggers were used to investigate patterns of koala movement.

Key results. Survival rates of translocated koalas were not different from those of controls and females in both groups showed slightly higher survival rates than did males. After 137 days, control animals had lower scaled body mass, whereas translocated animals, after an initial reduction, had mostly regained, or increased their scaled body mass. Translocated females regained their original scaled body mass faster than did translocated males. Male koalas in both control and translocated groups had higher rates of movement than did females, and translocated koalas had slightly higher rates of movement than did control koalas. Translocated koalas moved farther from their release location than control koalas.

Conclusions. On the basis of the scaled body-mass index, translocated koalas fared better than those left in situ in compromised habitat, even though the density of koalas in the over-browsed habitat had been reduced by a wider salvage translocation program. The process used to identify potential release sites, including a spatial koala-habitat index, accurately predicted suitable koala habitat.

Implications. The current management strategy of translocating koalas out of over-browsed habitat is supported and could be more widely applied.

Context. Animal activity patterns throughout the day constitute an important dimension of their ecological niche, and may have ecological and evolutionary implications; for an organism to be active during the day or night period, a series of conditions requiring different anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations must be met.

Aims. To study the anuran community in an area of Atlantic Forest in Brazil, to evaluate the species activity period as well as the diurnal and nocturnal detection probabilities of anurans, and to relate these activities to environmental variables such as air temperature, relative humidity and precipitation.

Methods. The anurans were sampled along 21 plot transects in the diurnal period and during a nocturnal period, with temperature and relative humidity measured in each plot. Species were considered predominantly diurnal or nocturnal if 35% or more individuals were recorded during one of these periods. Anuran detectability was estimated using single-season occupancy models, relating to environmental variables.

Key results. Of the individuals recorded, 12% were recorded during diurnal sampling and 88% were recorded during nocturnal sampling, with Ololygon agilis being the only species considered diurnal. The probability of detection was affected by only two variables (period and humidity).

Conclusions. The anuran community in the study area was essentially nocturnal, with only one species that could be considered diurnal. Additionally, detectability was higher at night, with humidity being the most important variable affecting species detection.

Implications. Surveys can be planned under climatic conditions that positively influence the probabilities of detection to improve the effectiveness of monitoring species and/or anurans community.

Context. Large forest-dwelling mammals are highly sensitive to habitat structure. Thus, understanding the responses of reintroduced banteng (Bos javanicus d’Alton 1823) to their habitat is important for ensuring the sustainability of a reintroduction program.

Aims. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the habitat preferences of banteng after reintroduction into the Salakphra Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand on the basis of fieldwork conducted between January 2015 and November 2017.

Methods. Seven banteng individuals bred at the Khao Nampu Nature and Wildlife Education Center were systematically reintroduced into the Salakphra Wildlife Sanctuary in 2015 (four individuals) and 2016 (three individuals). The banteng individuals were tracked via radio-collars and camera-traps. The maximum-entropy method (MaxEnt) and multiple logistic regressions (MLR) were used to identify habitat preferences. Kernel-density estimates (KDE) and a minimum convex polygon (MCP) were used to estimate the area of the habitat used.

Key results. In total, 407 radio-signal locations showed that the MaxEnt habitat-preference models classified the banteng as associated with distance from villages and salt licks (regularised training gain of >1.0). Multiple logistic regressions form 32 camera-trap locations classified the banteng as associated with low elevations far from villages, guard stations and roads in a flat area (no aspect). The two methods for estimating habitat use provided similar results and showed that the reintroduced banteng used a wider range of habitat in the dry than in the wet season.

Conclusions. The results from the present study suggest that the reintroduced banteng individuals prefer low elevations and flat areas without human activity.

Implications. These findings are important for possible translocations elsewhere.

Context. Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) are an increasing threat to agriculture and ecological communities globally. Although ground rooting is their most readily observable sign, feral pigs typically remain highly cryptic and their abundance and impacts are difficult to quantify.

Aims. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of current feral pig population management practices (trapping, baiting, no feral pig management) on feral pig abundance and digging impacts, using a BACI (before–after control–impact) experimental design at a landscape scale.

Methods. A monitoring program was established to quantify both the abundance and digging impacts of feral pig populations within a temperate sclerophyll forest landscape using distance sampling. Transects were established across eight drinking water catchments where the whole catchment was the unit of replication for feral pig population management. Monitoring was carried out at 6-monthly intervals for 3 years, with no feral pig population management undertaken in the first year. In total, 367 feral pigs were trapped out of three catchments subject to trapping, and 26 were baited across two catchments subject to baiting with a commercial product (PIGOUT, Animal Control Technologies Australia, Melbourne, Vic., Australia). Three catchments were exempt from feral pig population management for the duration of this study.

Key results. Feral pig density within the overall study site was estimated as 1.127 pigs km^–2, resulting in 4580 diggings km^–2 year^–1. There was no significant difference in feral pig density estimates observed among population management treatments or the treatment × year interaction term. An overall decrease in feral pig density across all catchments was attributed to extreme temperature and drought conditions experienced during the study.

Conclusions. Feral pig populations demonstrate high resilience to current feral pig population management practices in the present study. The annual volume of soil disturbed by the numbers of feral pigs estimated across this study area is comparable to a commercial-scale resource extraction industry. We did not find significant differences in feral pig digging density among dominant vegetation types, but larger digs were associated with swamp vegetation.

Implications. Current levels of feral pig population management did not reduce pig densities across eight catchments in the northern jarrah forest; therefore, more intensive population management is needed.

Context. We examined the effectiveness of camera traps to monitor the success of a feral-cat (Felis catus) and fox (Vulpes vulpes) reduction program near Ravensthorpe, Western Australia.

Aims. To determine whether camera traps are an effective tool to measure a reduction in the abundance of F. catus and V. vulpes at a local scale.

Methods. In all, 201 Foxoff^® baits (i.e. 1080) were laid along the edge of unsealed tracks for each of three periods (i.e. opened 13–15 May 2017, Period 1 closed 29–31 May 2017, Period 2 closed 12–13 June 2017, Period 3 closed 25–26 June 2017), and 98 bait sites were monitored by camera traps during each period. In addition, 150 baited cage traps were deployed to catch F. catus for the same three periods. Vulpes vulpes and F. catus were also shot in the adjacent paddocks before traps were opened and during the laying of traps and bait replacement. We used the first 13 days of camera-trapping data for each period to examine whether there was a significant reduction in V. vulpes and F. catus.

Key results. Camera traps recorded a significant reduction in V. vulpes images, but knock-down with Foxoff^® baits was not as effective as in other programs, and there was no change in the measured abundance of F. catus. Numerous baits were taken and not recorded by camera traps. Multiple V. vulpes moved past or investigated, but did not take baits and a V. vulpes was recorded regurgitating a bait.

Conclusions. Camera traps were not effective for recording bait-take events. Vulpes vulpes knock-down was low and slow compared with other studies, did not reflect the number of baits taken and Foxoff^® baits appeared unpalatable or unattractive to many V. vulpes.

Implications. Camera traps did not record a high proportion of bait-take, appeared to be insensitive to small changes in fox and cat abundance and Foxoff^® baits were less effective in reducing the abundance of V. vulpes than in other studies.

Context. Seabirds were the most common taxa captured alive as part of the oiled wildlife response to the grounding of the container vessel MV Rena in the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand.

Aims. To describe the management of seabirds during the spill response, to outline the common problems encountered and to make recommendations for future responses.

Methods. Seabirds were collected from 7 October 2011 to 14 January 2012. They were stabilised and underwent pretreatment, washing and rinsing procedures to remove oil, followed by swimming physiotherapy to restore waterproofing and long-term housing in outdoor aviaries. The birds were released in batches close to the original sites of capture once the wild habitat was cleaned.

Key results. 428 live seabirds were admitted. There were two temporal peaks in admissions associated with the ship grounding and when the ship broke up. The majority of live birds were little penguins (Eudyptula minor; 394/428, 92%). Most seabirds admitted (393/428, 91.8%) were contaminated with heavy fuel oil, with the remainder (35/428, 8.2%) found unoiled but starving and/or exhausted or with injuries. Little penguins had lower mortality during rehabilitation (28/394, 7.1%) than other seabird species combined (27/34, 79.4%). Seabirds in poorer body condition on arrival had higher mortality, and unoiled birds were also more likely to die than oiled birds. In oiled little penguins, the degree of oiling on the plumage ranged from 1 to 100%, but mortality was not significantly associated with the degree of oiling (P = 0.887). Pododermatitis affected 66% of little penguins. The most common causes of death (n = 45) included weakness, anaemia and hypothermia in oiled seabirds (16/45, 35.6%), and starvation and weakness in unoiled seabirds (14/45, 31.1%).

Conclusions. Total survival to release was 87.1%, primarily influenced by the species involved and the body condition of the birds on arrival. Unoiled seabirds had higher mortality rates than oiled seabirds.

Implications. Oiled wildlife can be rehabilitated with good success, even when heavily oiled, or to a lesser extent, when found in poor body condition. More work is needed to refine species-specific rehabilitation protocols for seabirds, especially for those being admitted in emaciated body condition.

Context. Monitoring survival of free-living precocial avian young is critical for population management, but difficult to achieve. Perhaps the most promising technique available to track survival is the deployment of devices such as radio-transmitters or data loggers, which allow for tracking of the individuals.

Aims. To understand if the deployment of radio-transmitters or the process of radio-tracking negatively impact chick survival by analysing survival of tagged chicks.

Methods. Fifty masked lapwing (Vanellus miles), 42 red-capped plover (Charadrius ruficapillus) and 27 hooded plover (Thinornis cucullatus) chicks were radio-tracked. Mortality between tagged and untagged chicks within broods was compared to examine whether radio-telemetry influenced chick survival.

Key results. There was no statistically significant difference in survival between chicks with and without radio-transmitters. Radio-transmitters enabled the determination of cause of death for 0–28% of radio-tagged chicks.

Conclusion. The survival of shorebird chicks does not appear to be affected by attachment of transmitters.

Implications. Radio-tracking remains a promising way of studying the movement and survival of shorebird chicks, and is helpful but not reliable for assigning the cause of mortality.

Context. Tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus) and dhole (Cuon alpinus) represent a typical multi-predator system of species of conservation concern. Several studies have addressed this system, with heterogeneous results, and there’s a lack of information on population dynamics of multi-species assemblages. We studied a time series (1998–2009) of abundance indices for three predators and five prey species in Bor Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS), Maharashtra, India, before it was declared as Bor Tiger Reserve (BTR) in 2009.

Aims. To analyse the complex relationships within a predator–prey system in a dynamic fashion, to analyse data collected in a stable and undisturbed area and to form a comparison basis for future studies within the sanctuary after its declaration as a Tiger Reserve.

Methods. A 24-h effort was made annually to census the BWS. Predators were counted at waterholes from arboreal hideouts. The prey populations were censused along 353-km line-transects. For each species, we analysed the yearly growth rate, testing the effect of inter-species abundance.

Key results.Tiger growth rate did not depend on any particular prey, whereas mesopredators seemed to depend on medium-sized prey. A die-out of dholes in 2001 was followed by an increase in tiger populations (from 4 to 11), which, in turn, negatively affected leopard numbers (from 6 to 2).We found no direct evidence of top-down effect, but the density dependence for three of five prey species could be linked to predation pressure. We found some evidence of interspecific competition among prey species, especially among ungulates, potentially being mediated by predation pressure.

Conclusions. The relationships among species in a predator–prey system are very complex and often could be explained only by more-than-two-species interactions. The disappearance of one predator, not necessarily the top predator, could bring multiple effects, for which it could be difficult to detect causal relationships.

Implications. All subsequent changes in human activities in the sanctuary, as a consequence of its designation as the BTR in 2009, should be evaluated with respect to the results of the present study. The conservation of large predators should rely on the maintenance of a rich and abundant prey base, in which different-sized prey could lessen interactive-competition among the predators.