Context. Conservation performance payment (CPP) is increasingly used to promote human–carnivore co-existence. The leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) is a small felid, which suffers from high levels of anthropogenic mortality. In Taiwan, CPP has recently been introduced to stimulate leopard cat conservation in rural townships. A CPP scheme for leopard cats was pilot-tested in 2019, with the aim to enroll it to other rural townships in future.

Aims. We determined whether CPP has a positive impact on attitudes towards leopard cat. To assess whether attitudes are species-specific, we compare attitudes towards leopard cat to attitudes towards other small carnivores, namely gem-faced civet (Paguma larvata) and ferret badger (Melogale moschata), and to pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), a species with a similar conservation status. On the basis of our results, we discuss whether leopard cat CPP is likely to benefit biodiversity preservation as a whole.

Methods. We used a structured (pilot-tested) questionnaire to interview 164 respondents in three rural townships in which leopard cats occur in relatively high numbers compared to other townships.

Key results. People felt more positive about leopard cat and pangolin, species that were seen as appealing and rare, than about gem-faced civet and ferret badger. Whether species were perceived as causing poultry depredation or agricultural losses was a main reason behind attitudes. Attitudes varied among townships. With CPP, attitudes towards all species became more positive. However, more than a quarter of the respondents were skeptical about the effectiveness of CPP.

Conclusions and implications. On the basis of the species popularity and area requirements, leopard cats are a suitable flagship umbrella species. As such, leopard cat CPP is likely to promote biodiversity conservation in Taiwan, especially if other (unpopular) species are taken into account in the objectives of such a scheme. For CPP to be effective, it is important that such a program is participatory, has clear objectives, accurate systems to monitor program outcomes and provides sufficient long-term local benefits. With attitudes towards wildlife varying at a small geographical scale, there is a need for research prior to implementation of CPP, so it can be adapted to local requirements.

Context. Livestock depredation is a major medium- and large-carnivore conservation challenge around the globe, causing a substantial economic loss to small-scale agricultural communities in the Wolaita Highlands, southern Ethiopia, and often leading to retaliatory killing. In the Wolaita Highlands, southern Ethiopia, livestock depredation rates are increasing because of conversion of wild habitats into grazing lands. Various studies have examined the interactions between humans and carnivores in time and space and the prey preference of carnivores with regard to livestock type.

Aim. This study aimed to assess livestock depredation by large carnivores in time, space, season and prey preference by carnivores and economic losses by farmers with regard to livestock depredation in the highlands of Wolaita, southern Ethiopia.

Methods. In total, 384 herders who are heads of households were interviewed and an information-theoretic approach was used to analyse the factors influencing self-reported livestock losses to spotted hyena, leopards and jackal.

Key results. The economic loss associated with livestock depredation by spotted hyena, leopard and jackal amounted to an average loss of US$33.3 per herder and year. We found that spotted hyena had a preference for sheep, goat and donkey; leopard for goat and sheep; and jackal for goat and poultry. Livestock depredations by the three carnivores were mainly during the night-time and more severe during the dry season.

Conclusion. The number of livestock owned by a household, night-time, dry season and the availability and preferences of the type of livestock by carnivores had the strongest influence on livestock losses.

Implications. To mitigate wild carnivore conflicts in the highlands of Wolaita, southern Ethiopia, we make recommendations that the farmers should be trained and equipped in order to build a better wild-carnivore management strategies and to scale up their mitigating strategies.

Context. Researchers studying animals need to ensure that sampling procedures and the methods they use are as harmless and non-disruptive as possible, particularly when their focal species are threatened or protected. White sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) are Vulnerable under the IUCN Red List, protected globally, and are frequently studied by marine ecologists.

Aims. To assess white shark responses to research activities (i.e. tagging and biopsy procedures, and electric deterrent trials) conducted at the Neptune Islands Group Marine Park (South Australia, Australia).

Methods. Trends in shark residency following research activities were assessed by comparing shark abundance (number of sharks detected by acoustic receivers and sighted by cage-diving operators) before, during, and after scientific expeditions, and to natural fluctuations in the absence of research activities using 8 years (2013–2021) of acoustic tracking and daily sighting reports from a wildlife tourism industry.

Key results. Number of white sharks and residency decreased after sampling. However, changes observed following research activities were similar to natural fluctuations, suggesting that these changes reflected natural variations rather than being due to sharks responding negatively to the research activities.

Conclusions. Our study showed that external tagging, biopsies, or deterrent trials do not affect short- and long-term residency or abundance of white sharks, probably owing to the research activities being minimally intrusive and to sharks having efficient immune systems and remarkable ability to heal from injuries.

Implications. Re-evaluating study methods forms part of the researcher’s responsibilities to ensure best practice and to abide by national and international codes for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes.

Context. African lion (Panthera leo) populations are declining throughout Africa, but the problem is particularly acute in southern Kenya, where human–lion conflict is common.

Aims. Using the Kuku Group Ranch (KGR) in southern Kenya as a case study, we investigated lion diet and the potential drivers of temporal variation in cattle depredation.

Methods. Using GPS clusters, we investigated the main prey species consumed by lions to determine lion diet. Prey preference of lions in relation to prey availability was then assessed using a Jacobs index to determine whether cattle or wild prey were preferred. We used reported depredation events recorded by verification officers over 36 months (2016–2018) to investigate whether temporal variation in cattle depredation by lions was linked to variation in lag rainfall, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) or availability of the most important large non-domestic prey items.

>Key results. Six prey species (cattle, Bos taurus; Burchell’s zebra, Equus quagga; Coke’s hartebeest, Alcelaphus cokeii; Maasai giraffe, Giraffa tippelskirchi; blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus; and eland, Tragelaphus oryx) made up 92% of the biomass consumed by lions on KGR. Cattle are the most consumed prey item and contribute the second most to consumed biomass after giraffe. However, once prey availability is considered, lions preferred wild prey. Verification officers identified 330 cattle depredation events over 3 years, and we show that the most important predictor of monthly cattle depredation by lions was cumulative rainfall in the preceding 3 months.

>Conclusions. Our results on cattle depredation by lions showed that rainfall and its influence on the environment are important drivers of cattle depredation. Understanding the mechanistic link between lion depredation and rainfall enables us to predict when depredation events may increase and allows hypotheses on the reason why this spike in depredation takes place to be explored.

Implications. Given that climate-change models indicate that East Africa will experience prolonged and increased seasonal rainfall, we predict that periods when cattle are vulnerable to lion depredation may increase. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that cattle husbandry is improved during these wetter periods to minimise the risk of conflict and retaliatory killing of lions.

Context. Due to considerable declines in African wildlife populations, most large African mammals are managed inside protected areas. Protected areas come in various sizes, and have different environmental features, climates and management strategies (i.e. ‘hands-on’ or ‘hands-off’) that can influence an animals’ homeostasis. White rhinos (Ceratotherium simum simum) are found almost exclusively within protected areas where population sizes are driven by natural factors and poaching pressures.

Aims. Our aim was to understand the effect of natural and anthropogenic factors on the adrenocortical response of white rhinos within three protected areas. Specifically, we wanted to understand how poaching pressure, protected area size (<500 km²), season (wet and dry) and rainfall patterns were responsible for driving adrenocortical activity in white rhino.

Methods. To understand the relationship between rhino adrenocortical responses and different environmental and anthropogenic stressors, we quantified glucocorticoid metabolites in faecal samples (fGCM) collected from four populations within three protected areas (i.e. two small parks, one big park) during the wet and dry seasons.

Key results. We found differences in seasonal fGCM concentrations, with a 42% increase during the dry season, and no differences in fGCM concentrations between the high and low poaching areas. Additionally, we found fGCM concentrations in samples from the small parks were respectively 38% and 42% higher than in samples from the large park during both the dry and wet seasons compared.

Conclusions. Our results suggest that white rhinos may experience physiological stress in smaller parks, especially during the dry season when resources are limited.

Implications. By mitigating stress associated with reduced access to resources and spatial constraints, managers may better promote the viability of large mammals in small protected areas.

Context. Collisions between birds and aircraft (bird strikes) are a serious threat to aviation safety and these negative human–wildlife interactions are predicted to increase. As the wider spatial use of landscapes by birds can affect aviation safety (e.g. location of foraging and roosting sites), there is a clear need to implement effective management strategies at sites adjacent to airfields to reduce ingress of avian taxa across airfield boundaries.

Aims. In the present study, we assessed the efficacy of both an acoustic deterrent (sonic net) and a visual simulated predator effigy, in the form of a fox-shaped model, to disturb and reduce bird accumulations on: (1) agricultural foraging sites; (2) an active airfield; and (3) problematic roof-top roosts.

Methods. These non-lethal scare technologies were assessed separately and in combination by using a factorial design. Bird abundances, species richness and behavioural changes were considered.

Key results. Although the scare technologies did not reduce bird species richness at treated sites, in most cases, a significant reduction in bird abundances was observed. Equally, the number of birds observed to forage or roost was also generally significantly reduced, as was time spent by birds within treated sites. However, the effects of treatments were not universally across species. For example, a reduction in the abundance of gulls tended to be paired with an increase in the number of corvids for foraging sites. Nevertheless, the combined application of the sonic net and fox effigy caused a considerable reduction in foraging bird numbers, whereas singular treatment types appear to work best for roof-top roosts. Data also indicate that the sonic-net technology can be used to deter night-time roosting on an active airfield.

Conclusions. When taken together, treatments resulted in substantial and often significant reductions in bird abundance, foraging and roosting activity, as well as site residency time. However, treatment efficacy tended to be context and taxon specific.

Implications. Sonic net and mobile simulated predator effigies represent promising experimental scare technologies. Following further testing, the integration of these technologies into bird management interventions could yield substantial risk reductions for bird strikes, as well as improved non-lethal management of problematic roosting and nesting sites.

Context. Across much of its geographic range, the masked water snake, Homalopsis buccata, is harvested each year in large numbers, questioning the sustainability of that offtake.

Aims. To quantify abundance and demography of water snakes in anthropogenically disturbed habitats in an area of West Java, where these snakes are subject to intensive harvest.

Methods. We accompanied professional snake-collectors, and conducted our own surveys of ponds and irrigation canals, to record the numbers and attributes (species, sex, size, etc.) of snakes that were captured using a variety of methods.

Key results. Snakes of several species were abundant, with mean capture rates of 32 666 snakes km⁻¹ of irrigation canals, and 57 501 snakes km⁻² of fishponds (9500 and 43 788 for H. buccata alone). Sex ratios of H. buccata were female-biased in ponds but not irrigation channels. Ponds underlain by deeper mud contained more snakes. Collecting methods varied among habitat types, in a way that reduced collateral risk to commercially farmed fish in ponds.

Conclusions. These water snakes are extremely abundant in Java, despite high levels of historical and continuing harvest. The inference of low population sizes for H. buccata in Indonesia, as presented in the IUCN Red List, is erroneous.

Implications. An ability to utilise anthropogenic resource subsidies (in this case, fish farmed in village ponds) allows some native predator species to attain remarkably high abundances, and to withstand intense efforts at harvesting.

Context. Unsustainable harvesting can threaten wildlife populations and jeopardise the livelihoods of people relying on wildlife resources. Although millions of rainbow mudsnakes (Enhydris enhydris) are harvested from wetland agroecosystems in tropical Asia each year, few detailed studies have been conducted on the biology of this species.

Aims. We aimed to address this knowledge gap by examining the reproductive biology and resilience to harvesting of E. enhydris, collecting from agricultural landscapes in West Java, Indonesia.

Methods. We measured and examined 1731 specimens that had been collected and killed for skins and meat near the city of Cirebon in West Java.

>Key results. Most snakes that we examined were adults (94% of females, 88% of males), with females outnumbering males overall (69% female). Sex ratios varied seasonally and among processing facilities. Females attained larger body sizes than males, were more heavy-bodied, and had shorter tails relative to snout–vent length. Reproductive traits varied among months, with two peaks in the incidence of gravid snakes occurring in March and September. Litter sizes averaged 11.2 (range 2–31) and increased with maternal body size. About half of the adult females were reproductive (vitellogenic or gravid) at the time of collection. This proportion increased with maternal body size, such that 60–70% of large females were reproductive at the time of collection, suggesting that some females may produce two litters per year.

Conclusions. Rainbow mudsnakes remain exceptionally abundant in West Java, despite significant habitat modification and intensive harvesting.

Implications. The ability of this species to exploit anthropogenic subsidies in disturbed agricultural landscapes gives it access to plentiful food, and the resultant early maturation, frequent reproduction, and high fecundity enable it to withstand high levels of commercial offtake.