Newer, selective insecticides with few negative impacts on natural enemies and competitor species are needed for effective, sustainable management of the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impacts on natural enemies and competitor thrips species of insecticides used for control of western flower thrips in fruiting vegetables. Trials with tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and with pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) were conducted to evaluate insecticide treatment effects on western flower thrips and natural enemies at the North Florida in 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011. A number of insecticides from different classes showed moderate to high efficacy against western flower thrips. The broad-spectrum insecticides acetamiprid, methomyl, and tolfenpyrad demonstrated activity against the pest, while also reducing populations of the key predator of thrips in pepper, Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Insecticides that showed little impact on populations of O. insidiosus were cyantraniliprole, flonicamid, spirotetramat, and terpenes. Although only moderately active against the western flower thrips, they would be valuable additions to existing management programs for pepper. Insecticides with activity against western flower thrips also showed activity against Frankliniella tritici (Fitch). This non-damaging congener species is a beneficial because it out-competes the western flower thrips, especially in tomato where O. insidiosus is not a major factor in western flower thrips management. Numerous insecticides were identified with activity against the western flower thrips that are suitable for use in integrated pest management programs of fruiting vegetables.

Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman and thrips-transmitted Iris yellow spot virus are the most significant pest complex affecting onion production in the Treasure Valley of eastern Oregon and southwestern Idaho. Thrips feeding damage and virus infection significantly reduce onion bulb size and economic returns for this high value crop. The high concentration of onion fields in the Treasure Valley and the long, hot, dry growing season present a number of challenges for managing onion thrips and Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV). Insecticides are the primary tool that growers have to manage this pest complex. With the long growing season, growers need to exercise good insecticide resistance management programs to maintain the effectiveness of currently available insecticides. To do this, growers need to rotate among available products and use as few applications as practical. A challenge for researchers is to determine not only which insecticides are effective but also to determine when during the season different products may be most effectively used. Techniques for analyzing field trial data are discussed, including comparing changes in pest populations before and after various insecticide applications are made. These comparisons can be made through the use of linear estimates and contrasts as part of analyses of variance, and they can aid in determining efficacy of different treatments by accounting for pre-application populations. These techniques will help researchers in developing sound sequence of insecticide applications for onion thrips management.

The Vidalia onion crop in Georgia is grown in the winter, and the key insect pests in Georgia are thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). The thrips complex consists predominantly of tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca (Hinds), with smaller percentages of western flower thrips, F. occidentalis Pergande, eastern flower thrips, F. tritici (Fitch) and onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman. Onion thrips has become a greater concern in the last 10 years likely due to the introduction of a more aggressive biotype of T. tabaci on onions coming from Peru into the Vidalia region. A preliminary laboratory bioassay at 25 °C suggested that this onion thrips biotype could out-compete tobacco thrips on onions. Surveys were conducted from 2004 through 2013 in commercial Vidalia onion fields to determine if this increase in the percentage of onion thrips would occur. Average seasonal temperatures were highly correlated (r = 0.811) with percent T. tabaci and negatively correlated (r = -0.807) with F. fusca. The results suggest that temperature might regulate the proportion of onion thrips to tobacco thrips in the field, with a higher percentage of tobacco thrips occurring during cool winters and more onion thrips occurring in warm winters. Nevertheless, F. fusca continues to be the dominant thrips species in the Vidalia onion winter growing region of Georgia averaging 78% of the adult thrips population from 2004 to 2013.

The last 2 decades have produced a better understanding of insect-microbial associations and yielded some important opportunities for insect control. However, most of our knowledge comes from model systems. Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) have been understudied despite their global importance as invasive species, plant pests and disease vectors. Using a culture and primer independent next-generation sequencing and metagenomics pipeline, we surveyed the bacteria of the globally important pest, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood. The most abundant bacterial phyla identified were Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria and the most abundant genera were Propionibacterium, Stenotrophomonas, and Pseudomonas. A total of 189 genera of bacteria were identified. The absence of any vertically transferred symbiont taxa commonly found in insects is consistent with other studies suggesting that thrips primarilly acquire resident microbes from their environment. This does not preclude a possible beneficial/intimate association between S. dorsalis and the dominant taxa identified and future work should determine the nature of these associations.

The rationale behind the current study was to assess if the commercially available generalist phytoseiid mite, Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseiidae), can survive and reproduce when fed on pollen from ornamental pepper (Capiscum annum L.; Solanales: Solanaceae). Results from this study will help in the selection of ornamental pepper cultivars as candidate banker plants for establishment of A. swirskii in ornamental nurseries. To determine the effect of different types of pepper pollen on survival and multiplication ability of mites; their longevity, daily rate of oviposition and total egg deposition was assessed. Amblyseius swirskii was reared on pollen collected from 4 ornamental pepper cultivars namely ‘Red Missile’, ‘Masquerade’, ‘Black Pearl’ and ‘Explosive Ember’. Amblyseius swirskii was able to survive, develop and oviposit when fed with pollens of all the 4 ornamental pepper cultivars and the 2 standard controls i.e., commercially available olive pollen Olea europaea L. (Lamiales: Oleaceae) and Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). No significant differences were observed among the various diet treatments for the following biological parameters: mean duration from larvae to adult death (22.8–23.7 days), duration from larvae to eggs (11.8–12.5 days) and adult longevity (12.4–13.1 days). However, for mites fed on pollen the highest daily rate of oviposition (∼1.07 eggs/female/day) and total oviposition (∼10.23 eggs/female) was recorded on the ‘Red Missile’. Outcome of this study can boost the management strategies being used against S. dorsalis and other pest species affecting ornamental plants in Florida.

The common blossom thrips, Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom), has been recently reported as an agronomic pest in South Florida. It poses a serious threat to tomato and pepper growers due to its ability to transmit Groundnut ring spot virus (GRSV). In the wake of the current problem 3 trials were undertaken to control F. schultzei using conventional and novel insecticides of different modes of action. Specifically, the efficacies of neonicotinoid, diamides, spirotetramat, spinosyn/spinosad and Chenopodium ambrosioides were evaluated with the aim of controlling F. schultzei and minimizing the transmission of the virus. In the first trial, imidacloprid (IRAC Group 4) applied at planting as a soil drench followed by drip irrigation application of cyazypyr showed some reduction of the F. schultzei population and of the transmission of GRSV on tomato. The change in the method of application of cyazypyr from drip irrigation to direct application on the foliage in the second trial improved both the control of F. schultzei and the reduction of GRSV on tomato. In the third trial, the foliar applications of spirotetramat, spinetoram and Chenopodium ambrosioides did not control F. schultzei populations nor reduce the transmission of GRSV on pepper. Results from this study will help in the development of a management program using imidacloprid and cyazypyr in rotation with spirotetramat, spinetoram and Chenopodium ambrosioides. The development of such a program to suppress F. schultzei populations thrips and prevent transmission of GRSV will be challenging, but an effective IPM program would also serve as a strong insecticide resistance management program for F. schultzei.

Spiracles on Thysanoptera have a diverse and complex structure suggesting they function as plastrons and enable respiration during submergence from rainfall or flooding. I examined the mesothoracic, metathoracic, and first-abdominal spiracles on adult males and females of 4 species of Phlaeothripidae that inhabit the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts. Spiracles contained open pores surrounded by a network of cuticle. I observed 2 classes of spiracle structure, termed compound and simple. Most pores on compound spiracles contained a central spot of cuticle. Most pores on simple spiracles lacked a cuticular spot. Compound spiracles were observed on Leptothrips larreae Hood. Simple spiracles were observed on Liothrips xanthocerus Hood, Leptothrips fasciculatus (Crawford), and the wing-dimorphic Bagnalliella mojave Hood. First- and second-instar larvae of L. larreae and L. fasciculatus supported the same class of spiracles as adults. Metathoracic spiracles on macropterous B. mojave females were slightly larger than those on brachypterous females. A live L. larreae adult submerged in water, and illuminated obliquely from above, reflected light from its pterothoracic spiracles, indicating that they trap air and likely function as plastrons. Pterothoracic spiracles were also examined on museum slides of adult females of 8 additional, phlaeothripid species recorded in California at desert localities or on desert plants. Four species have compound spiracles, and 4 species have simple spiracles. These 2 classes of spiracles were independent of body size. Spiracle class was weakly, and non-significantly, dependent on brachyptery in either sex. All 4 species with brachypterous males or females produce adult females with simple spiracles. Of the 8 species with only macropters, 5 species support compound spiracles, and 3 species support simple spiracles. Simple spiracles may be more common on desert Phlaeothripidae that produce brachypters and live in enclosed microhabitats, providing more protection from submergence in rainfall.

Five species of Macdunnoughia Kostrowicki, 1961 have been recorded from China. Their distribution patterns indicate that the species richness of the genus was mainly concentrated in central China, and the number of species in southeastern and northwestern China was relatively small. A key to species of the genus in China is provided. Adults and male and female genitalia are illustrated.

In China, Aphelinus mali (Haldeman) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was independently introduced as an endoparasitoid of the woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) from Japan in 1942 and from the former Soviet Union during 1953–1955. However, we do not know which introduction of this endoparasitoid plays important role in the control of E. lanigerum in China. To determine the status of this biological control agent in China, we collected 16 populations from 6 provinces (Shandong, Liaoning, Hebei, Shanxi, Xinjiang and Yunnan) and analyzed the 948 mtCOI gene from specimens in these samples. The results revealed that the A. mali in China consisted of 2 cryptic mitochondrial clades including 3 haplotypes, which indicated at least 2 independent introductions of the parasitoid into China. Our results showed that each of the populations that had been introduced into Shandong and Liaoning, respectively, had also established in many regions of China , where they play an important role in the control of E. lanigerum. Therefore it is very likely that both original introductions have served as bridgeheads to establish other populations in China. Genetic analyses together with field surveys should be helpful in the management of the woolly apple aphid.

In this study, Homolophus nakhichevanicus Snegovaya, 2012 (Opiliones: Phalangiidae) was recorded in Turkey for the first time. This is only the second known location for this species, the first being the type locality (Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, Azerbaijan). The morphological characteristics are described along with a scannig electron microscope (SEM) study on the dorsal aspect, crown-shape on cephalothorax, ocularium, chelicera, pedipalp, the first pair of legs. The male genitalia of the specimens are also presented.

The invasive brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) has become a major concern for specialty and row crop growers in the United States. Management tactics against this new pest are currently limited to repeated synthetic insecticide applications, thereby making this problem even more challenging for the organic grower community. This study evaluated the insecticidal efficacy of organically-approved insecticides (azadirachtin, potassium salts of fatty acids, spinosad, pyrethrins, and pyrethrins kaolin) and experimental biopesticides (Chromobacterium subtsugae Martin et al. strain PRAA4-1^T [MBI-203], extract of Eucalyptus sp. [MBI-205], and Burkholderia sp. [MBI-206]). These materials were presented as 18-h old dried residues against adult H. halys in the laboratory. Nonlethal effect on horizontal walking mobility of H. halys was evaluated during a 4.5-h insecticide exposure period; vertical walking mobility was measured at 4.5 h and 7 d after the insecticide exposure. All treatments, except for azadirachtin, resulted in significantly higher mortality of H. halys over 7 d, compared with the untreated control. Pyrethrins kaolin, MBI-203, and MBI-206 resulted in ≥80% of individuals moribund or dead after 7 d. Horizontal walking distance of H. halys was significantly greater immediately and 3 h after exposure to pyrethrins and MBI-203, respectively, compared with the untreated control. After the 4.5-h exposure to potassium salts, pyrethrins, and pyrethrins kaolin, surviving H. halys climbed significantly shorter distances while those exposed to MBI-203 climbed significantly greater distances compared with the untreated control, in the vertical mobility bioassay. After 7 d, there was no measurable difference, in the vertical walking distance by surviving individuals, between any of the tested materials and the untreated control. The results of the study are discussed within the context of developing effective management strategies for H. halys in organic production systems.

Brown sugar and hot water methods have been developed to detect larvae of tephritid fruit flies post-harvest in fruit in order to maintain quarantine security. It would be useful to determine if modifications of these methods can yield better results and if less expensive alternatives exist. This study reports detection rates of Rhagoletis indifferens Curran (Diptera: Tephritidae) larvae separated from crushed sweet cherries (Prunus avium [L.] L.) by brown sugar flotation versus hot water and sodium chloride (salt) flotation methods. Cherries were crushed and shredded by a standard cherry crusher and submerged either in brown sugar solution, hot water, or salt solution. In sugar and salt solutions, extracted larvae floated, whereas in hot water they sank; and in all 3 visual inspections for larvae were made. The brown sugar flotation method detected more total larvae than the hot water method when using a clear dish or black pan after cherries were shredded through a 2-mm gap in a cherry crusher, resulting in 95, 85, and 85% detections, respectively. Brown sugar and salt flotation methods resulted in similar detection rates of 85–99% after cherries were shredded through either a 2- or 5-mm gap, even though the 2-mm gap resulted in greater shredding. In brown sugar, hot water, and salt solutions, 26–88% of first instars (when there were at least 8 individuals) were detected versus 77–100% of second and third instars. Results demonstrate that salt and brown sugar solutions are equally efficacious for detecting larvae of R. indifferens separated from crushed cherries. Salt solution is advantageous over brown sugar solution because it is less expensive. Should salt solution be used for detecting larval spotted wing drosophila (Drosophila suzukii [Matsumura]) in cherries, current results show that it would not compromise detection of R. indifferens.

The palmetto weevil, Rhynchophorus cruentatus (Fabricius), is a pest of cultivated palms in Florida. The larvae of this species and 2 other important Rhynchophorus pests, R. ferrugineus (Olivier) and R. palmarum (L.), feed internally and cause structural damage to palm fronds, trunks, and offshoots. Often, infestations are not detected until the tree suffers irreparable damage. Acoustic methods used previously to detect R. ferrugineus in field environments were applied to investigate detectability of early instar R. cruentatus larvae. Sounds from neonates inoculated into palm fronds were recorded for 120 s periods at 7-day intervals for 56 days in urban (exposed) and acoustically shielded (enclosed) conditions that might be encountered when screening offshoots for sale or transportation. The sounds were classified by automated spectral analyses into multiple categories, including vehicle noise, bird calls, and broadband, 0.3-3-ms larval sound impulses. Because spectral characteristics alone are not always reliable identifiers of larval signals in wood, the analyses also identified trains of 6 or more closely grouped larval impulses called bursts to help classify fronds as infested or uninfested. Larval bursts were produced at sufficient rates to classify inoculated fronds correctly each day of testing, although molting and resting behaviors resulted in the absence of bursts in 6–50% of individual, 2-min recordings. The rates of larval bursts were not significantly different in paired comparisons of recordings obtained from the same frond on the same day under urban and shielded conditions, which suggests that bursts are useful as indicators of Rhynchophorus infestations in a variety of conditions.

A new Allacta xizangensis sp. nov. (Blattodea: Ectobiidae: Pseudophyllodromiinae) is described and assigned to the polygrapha species group. Four known species, A. robusta, A. bimaculata, A. transversa, A. ornata, are re-described and illustrated based on type material and specimens kept in the collection of Southwest University (SWU), Sun Yat-Sen University (SYSU), Hebei University (HBU), China and Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IZCAS) and the Russian Academy of Sciences (ZIN). The hitherto unknown male of A. transversa is described with a special display of its genitalia. A key is given to identify the males of Allacta from China. The tarsomere ultrastructure of all the legs of A. ornata was examined by scanning electron microscopy.

Plant essential oils restrained the course of foraging behavior of individual worker ants and also influenced worker recruitment and food transport. Worker search times increased significantly among the plant oil treatments. The longest search time was observed for ants treated with essential oils of Capsicum annuum L. (Solanales: Solanaceae) and Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G.Don (Pinales: Pinaceae). Different essential oils have significantly different effects on the recruitment of the workers, the amount of food transported, and the time spent foraging.

A new Acanthaegilips species from Venezuela is described, i.e., Acanthaegilips notiobiellus sp. nov. Diagnostic characters of the new species and data about its biology, distribution and morphological variability are presented. We report here the first known host of Acanthaegilips as Notiobiella cixiiformis (Gerstaecker, 1888) (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae).

Species possessing mvo: Protaphorura bakhchisaraica sp. nov. and P. salsa sp. nov. from two peculiar habitats: xerothermic bushes in Ukraine (Crimea) and a salt lake shore in Russia (South Siberia) are described. Two other species with this organ, Protaphorura ianstachia Yosii, 1972 and P. stiriaca (Stach, 1946), are redescribed, discussed and their lectotypes designed. An identification key to all known Protaphorura species having mvo is given. The structure and arrangement of the organ is applied as a sharp diagnostic character at the species level.

Phenoloxidase (PO) is a multicopper enzyme, which plays an important role in melanin synthesis. PO is necessary for defense against intruding microorganisms and parasites, and is important in wound healing and cuticle pigmentation. As a specific inhibitor of PO, kojic acid (KA) is commonly used to characterize the functional properties of PO. In this study, we investigated the effect of KA on PO activity during the development of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, which is a destructive pest of many horticultural crops. After feeding on a KA-containing artificial diet, the larval and pupal developmental periods were significantly prolonged. In addition, the larvae did not grow to normal size and rates of pupation and emergence were decreased when B. dorsalis larvae had been fed with KA-containing diet for 6 days. Compared to the control, PO activities from whole bodies of B. dorsalis were inhibited, so did in larval cuticles. Consistent with these, kinetic analysis showed that the catalytic capability of PO was significantly reduced. The I₅₀ values of KA for PO activity also indicated that KA was an effective inhibitor of PO in B. dorsalis. Biochemical characterization showed that PO from B. dorsalis had maximum activity at pH 7.5 and 37 °C. These results provide additional understanding of the role of PO in growth of B. dorsalis. As an inhibitor of PO, KA is capable of disrupting the development of this pest insect.

Thysanoptera comprises both economically neutral species and economically important pests of crops. The immature stages of many pest species are not well known and, ironically, those are the most harmful stages for crops. Taeniothrips inconsequens (Uzel) has been reported on at least 35 different host plant species and it is found almost worldwide, but the knowledge of this species is still incomplete. Herein we present SEM images of the larva II of T. inconsequens with comments and remarks on specific features for the accurate identification of this species.

Tamarixia radiata (Waterston) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), is an arrhenotokous ectoparasitoid of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psylloidae), vector of huanglongbing (HLB) or citrus greening disease. Mass-rearing parasitoids for augmentative biological control has created the need to find storage conditions that will optimize egg load upon release. Food provided to females during the holding period may be foremost among factors that determine the number of eggs available for oviposition following storage. Pairs of newly emerged T. radiata were provided with 8 different diet treatments: water, honey, Nu-Lure® (a proteinaceous liquid made from 44% hydrolyzed corn gluten meal), host nymphs, honey Nu-Lure, honey host nymphs, Nu-Lure host nymphs, and honey Nu-Lure host nymphs. Female wasps were dissected after 5, 10, 15, and 20 days and mature eggs counted. An average of 4.6 eggs was observed in ovaries of newly emerged females. Honey alone was sufficient for female survival, but egg resorption took place within 5 days after emergence. The combination of honey Nu-Lure resulted in female survivorship similar to a diet of host nymphs, but egg formation was less than with nymphs provided. Tamarixia radiata formed more eggs feeding on mixed diets (Nu-Lure honey nymphs or Nu-Lure nymphs) compared to nymphs alone. However no artificial diet substituted for nymphal hemolymph.

The moth Euzophera pyriella (Lepidoptera: Pyralididae) is one of the important fruit pests in the pear orchards of Xinjiang, China. Extracts from the sex pheromone gland of virgin female moths were analyzed with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Two components, (Z)-8-Dodecenyl acetate (Z8-12:Ac) and (Z,E)-9,12-Tetradecadien-1-ol (Z9E12-14:OH), were identified in extracts. Z9E12-14:OH was the most active in electroantennogram (EAG) and field attraction studies. Z8-12:Ac and other common components identified in Euzophera (including Z9-14:Ac, Z9-14:OH and Z9E12-14:Ac) neither elicited significant EAG responses nor attracted many males in field tests. Binary mixtures of Z9E12-14:OH and Z8-12:Ac in different ratios were active in field tests, but the number of male moths trapped did not differ between these binary mixtures and Z9E12-14:OH alone. We conclude that Z9E12-14:OH is a major component of the female sex pheromone of E. pyriella and could be used as an attractant for monitoring the populations of this moth species.

Temperature plays a critical role in the population dynamics of insects. This study was designed to estimate the effect of exposure of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) in the parental generation to 41 °C for various durations (2, 6, 12, 24, and 36 h) on their reproduction and on the first generation progeny. The data indicated that, under both the arrhenotoky and the sexual reproduction pattern, the longevity of adult females and the numbers of larvae and adults in the first generation decreased significantly as the period of exposure to heat increased. When adults were exposed at least 24 hours under arrhenotoky and at least 6 hours under sexual reproduction, the total survival rate from larva to adult in the first progeny generation was significantly lower compared with control groups whose parents had not been exposed to heat treatments. Furthermore, high-temperature exposure of sexually reproducing adults significantly decreased the proportion of females in the first progeny generation: The sex ratio (♀:♂) changed from 2.69:1 in the control to 2.31:1 after 2 h to 2.14:1 after 36 h of heat treatment. These results support the hypothesis that heat stress could be of use in the control of the western flower thrips.

Phylomycus carolinianus (Bosc, 1902), (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Philomycidae) also known as Carolina mantleslug, is a widespread but poorly known terrestrial mollusc. We conducted studies to assess key aspects of its natural history. In the laboratory, its pattern of growth followed a sigmoid curve, but the growth rate was highly variable. Using a hierarchical clustering analysis of time to achieve reproductive maturity, the individual slugs could be separated into 4 discrete developmental groups: fast, intermediate, and slow-growing individuals, and also some that failed to develop completely. The 3 groups of developing slugs achieved reproductive maturity in about 129, 173, and 217 days, respectively. This developmental polymorphism suggests intra-generation risk-spreading. Reared alone or in pairs, slugs produced eggs in about 6 months; eggs numbered about 65 per cluster, though paired slugs produced slightly more eggs per cluster. Thus, these hermaphroditic slugs are capable of self-fertilization. Eggs hatched in about 3 weeks. Embryonic development occurred across the entire temperature range (10–29 °C) tested. The proportion of embryos developing was higher at 10, 14, 17 and 21 °C than at 25 and 29 °C. However, the embryos that developed at 10 and 29 °C did not hatch. Eggs incubated at 14 °C had the longest pre-hatching period, with those held at 25 °C the shortest. Synthetic gypsy moth and spruce budworm diets, and white mushrooms, all favored weight retention by adult slugs more than some natural diets tested, though mature slugs fed several diets produced eggs. Culture conditions of 21 °C and either gypsy moth or spruce budworm diet seemed optimal for growth and survival. Nearly all of the 51 mushroom species (representing 18 families) presented to slugs were eaten, though some much more readily than others. Except for Romaine lettuce, none of the foliage from 37 green plants offered were accepted as food.

Wood-borers of exotic and native trees are important pests of eucalyptus in many regions of the world. The feeding behavior of these insects causes losses in wood production. The aim of this study was to identify Cerambycidae beetles inhabiting plantations of clonal hybrid (Eucalyptus grandis × E. urophylla hybrid; Myrtales: Myrtaceae) and native cerrado vegetation in order to improve knowledge about potential wood-borers in these habitats. The insects were collected weekly using baited traps located within eucalyptus stands and in the cerrado vegetation. In total, 3,377 individuals belonging to 13 cerambycid species were caught. The potential wood-borers species in eucalyptus managed plantations should to be monitored during the rainy period.

The efficacy of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Poinar) infective juveniles (IJs) was evaluated against third instar Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae) under laboratory conditions in a sandy clay soil at various levels of soil moisture. Three experiments were performed in which the efficacy of the IJs against A. ludens was estimated, i.e., (a) at 6 different levels of soil moisture, (b) in soil that was allowed to lose moisture over a 15 day period, and (c) in soil with an initial moisture content of 16% and in which moisture loss was partially mitigated by adding water at 5-day intervals. In the first experiment, the greatest A. ludens mortality (80%) was observed in soil with 18% moisture (-63.1 bars), although this was not significantly greater than A. ludens mortality at 21% moisture (-20.4 bars). At 24% soil moisture (-7.70 bars), percentage of mortality of A. ludens declined to about 50%. Likewise insect mortality was substantially lower at soil moisture levels of 15% (-240.1 bars) and 12% (-1,232 bars) and very much lower (about 16%) at 9% soil moisture (-10,147 bars). In the second experiment, as soil moisture declined from 16% to less than 10% over a 15 day period, the infectivity of IJs, as indicated by A. ludens larval mortality, progressively declined from more than 55% to less than 10%. In the third experiment, in which moisture loss was partially mitigated by adding water at 5-day intervals, the decline in infectivity of IJs was gradual up to 21 days, but decreased thereafter. We conclude that soil moisture levels must be carefully considered when applying H. bacteriophora IJs to control A. ludens under field conditions, because soil moisture has a marked effect on the efficacy of IJs for the biological control of this pest.

Host plants of phytophagous insects are not equally attractive. The aim of this study was to evaluate the host-plant behavior of Sinopla perpunctatus Signoret (Hemiptera: Acanthosomatidae) and determine which parameters influence the insect's motivation. Sinopla perpunctatus is a green stink bug present in the Andean-Patagonian forest associated with various host species of Nothofagus (Fagales: Nothafagaceae) southern beech trees. For the assays, we collected adults at Quilanlahue forest (Neuquén, Argentina), an area affected by the deposition of volcanic ash, whose effects we decided to evaluate. A sequence of paired comparisons was used to evaluate the host-plant preferences. Branches from N. antarctica, N. nervosa, N. obliqua and plastic leaves (control), with or without ash were the stimuli offered. In total we performed 18 combinations of paired tests to evaluate the different combinations of treatments. We considered the choices of each individual by day as the response variable. The data were analyzed by several models that explain the probability of an individual choosing a particular option depending on host plant preferences and the effect of different parameters of motivation (including the age, ash, home effect and combinations).Thus a total of eight models were proposed to explain the data, from which we selected the model with the lowest value of the deviance information criterion (DIC). The selected model established that preferences were determined by the motivation for change after the organism has already made a choice (i.e., home effect). The preferred host plants of S. perpunctatus were found to be N. antarctica and N. obliqua, while its preference for N. nervosa occupied a second place. Physical or chemical defenses of the leaves among species could explain this rank. However, volcanic ash was found to have no effect on motivation or host preference. Finally, we concluded that such studies of behavior and of parameters that may affect insect motivation should allow us to reach greater understandings of insect-plant interactions.

The final instar larva of Synergus filicornis (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae: Synergini) is described and illustrated. Morphological structures of a diagnostic value are discussed. The most remarkable character states shown by the mature larva of this species lie in the integument, which unlike the rest of described cynipoid mature larvae, presents tegumental differentiations. Additionally the antennal orbits, unlike those of other described Synergini mature larvae, did not present one seta on each antennal orbit. The immature larvae can be differentiated from the mature larva by the following characters: a) number and location of sensorial tegumental differentiations on the head, b) number of sensilla on the maxillary palpi, and c) morphology of the mandibles. The determination of the mandibles size, in this species, permits the estimation of the larval stages number.

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is the main vector of Tomato Zonate Spot Virus (TZSV) in Yunnan, China. We investigated the life history parameters of F. occidentalis on tomato and pepper leaves either with or without TZSV infection. The total duration of the immature stages of F. occidentalis reared on TZSV-infected leaves was significantly shorter than the total duration of those reared on uninfected leaves. Also the survival rates of the instars and prepupae on TZSV-infected tomato and pepper leaf disks were significantly higher than those on uninfected tomato and pepper leaf disks. The F. occidentalis populations reared on TZSV-infected tomato and pepper leaf disks respectively increased 11.97- and 10.64-fold in 1 generation, while those reared on uninfected tomato and pepper leaf disks increased only 8.10- and 6.45-fold, respectively. These results demonstrated that TZSV infection improved the fitness and host suitability of its vector, F. occidentalis. Also our findings suggest that TZSV-infection is likely to induce larger field populations of F. occidentalis, thereby increasing the probability of TZSV transmission.

The velvetbean caterpillar, Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is the most important defoliator of soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill, Fabaceae) crops in Brazil. Early-instar caterpillars of this pest are the main target of control. The objective of this work was to evaluate the toxicity of a commercial product, Bioneem® [neem oil (Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Meliaceae)], sprayed on A. gemmatalis caterpillars. Bioneem® was sprayed on soybean plants and 3 h later specific branches were enclosed by organza bags in a greenhouse with third-instar A. gemmatalis caterpillars. Ten replications with 80 caterpillars were used per treatment. The mortalities of A. gemmatalis caterpillars (mean 3rd to 6th instars) was 3.17, 7.18, 5.00, 11.25, 16.74, and 18.15%, whereas the respective mortalities of the pupae obtained from treated the caterpillars were 20.57, 22.79, 29.64, 39.16, 51.50, and 59.17%. The viabilities until the pre-pupal stage were 76.26, 70.03, 65.36, 49.59, 31.76, and 22.68% with 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25% of the neem oil, respectively. The larval stage of this pest (3rd instar to pre-pupa) lasted longer in the 20% neem oil treatment than at the other rates, but its longevity was not affected. Anticarsia gemmatalis pupae presented developmental interruptions and anomalies at all concentrations of neem oil. The commercial product Bioneem® (neem oil) can therefore be used as a suitable alternative to synthetic insecticides to control A. gemmatalis.

Two species of suspected hyperparasitoids, Chartocerus sp. and Pachyneuron crassiculme, emerged from parasitized Diaphorina citri nymphs collected in Punjab Pakistan over 15-22 Apr 2013. Exposure tests conducted in quarantine on D. citri nymphs parasitized by Tamarixia radiata and Diaphorencyrtus aligarhensis, as well as unparasitized D. citri nymphs, confirmed that Chartocerus sp. and P. crassiculme are hyperparasitoids. Both Chartocerus sp. and P. crassiculme successfully reproduced on D. aligarhensis, with one instance of P. crassiculme reproducing on T. radiata. There was no emergence from unparasitized D. citri.

Cardiocondyla (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) ants are small and inconspicuous species. All Cardiocondyla are native to the Old World, but 5 species have been broadly dispersed through human commerce, achieving widespread distributions in both the Old World and the New World. Here I examine the worldwide spread of Cardiocondyla minutior. I compiled published and unpublished C. minutior specimen records from > 300 sites. I documented the earliest known C. minutior records for 56 geographic areas (countries, island groups, major Caribbean islands, and US states), including several for which I found no previously published records: Austral Islands, Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Honduras, Îles Éparses, Jamaica, Madagascar, and Mayotte. Cardiocondyla minutior appears to be originally from the Indo-Malayan region, where all its closest relatives are found. Surprisingly, there are few records of C. minutior from this region. Instead, most Old World records of C. minutior come from Pacific and Indian Ocean islands where there are few or no native ants, e.g., the Chagos Archipelago, Hawaii, Îles Éparses, Easter Island, the Marquesas Islands, the Seychelles, and the Society Islands. Cardiocondyla minutior is becoming widespread in tropical and subtropical parts of the New World. The success of Cardiocondyla species in exotic locales may be due, in part, to their ability to co-exist with dominant invasive ants, such as the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile.

Microbial symbioses likely drive the evolution of diet within animals, yet these symbiotic relationships remain poorly understood for many organisms. The bacterial endosymbiont Enterococcus faecalis is found in the intestinal tract of the beetle Harpalus pensylvanicus (DeGeer) (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and is thought to contribute to the digestion of the insect's seed diet. We tested whether E. faecalis increases seed consumption by H. pensylvanicus. The feeding assay consisted of 4 dietary treatments fed: 1) antibiotics and E. faecalis; 2) antibiotics and no E. faecalis; 3) no antibiotics and E. faecalis; and 4) no antibiotics and no E. faecalis, in which seed consumption of the beetles was measured. Beetles administered antibiotics and then E. faecalis consumed greater weights of seeds and had both decreased efficiency of conversion of ingested material to biomass (E.C.I.) per beetle and decreased efficiency of conversion of digested material (E.C.D.) to biomass per beetle. These data provide further evidence that a gut microbiota dominated by E. faecalis facilitate seed consumption by H. pensylvanicus, possibly by contributing digestive enzymes to their host. Further research is needed on the evolutionary relationship between E. faecalis and granivorous insects, and on how these facultative symbioses could influence the trophic placement of animals within complex food webs.

A Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) molecular diagnostic survey for the honey bee pathogens Nosema apis Zander and N. ceranae Fries was conducted on feral Africanized honey bee (AHB) and European honey bee (EHB), Apis mellifera L., populations sampled from Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, Utah, Oklahoma, and New Mexico. Polymerase Chain Reaction — Restriction Fragment Length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of a 220 bp small subunit (SSU) marker was conducted on 517 samples, consisting of 245 AHB and 272 EHB individuals. A total of 43 samples (8.3%) were positive for Nosema; of these, 82.1% were N. ceranae, and the remainder were N. apis. No mixed samples were observed. For the AHB samples, Nosema was detected in 9.0% of the samples with 89.5% of the Nosema identified as N. ceranae, and 10.5% as N. apis. With the EHB samples, 7.7% had Nosema; 75.0% of these with N. ceranae, and 25.0% with N. apis. No significant difference was observed between AHB and EHB feral samples for occurrence of each Nosema species and prevalence of Nosema infection. Among the AHB samples, Nosema was more common in Utah and Texas than in New Mexico and Oklahoma. Nosema infection rates for feral honey bees was considerably lower than levels observed with managed honey bees in studies from New York, South Dakota, and Virginia.

Approximately 6000 species of Thysanoptera have been described worldwide. They are particularly diverse in the Neotropics, living in a wide range of environments. Although many species of thrips are well known as inhabitants of cultivated plants, there are others that are abundant in other types of habitats. In the present study we conducted a survey in the “Biosphere Reserve of Volcan Tacana” with the main objective to know the native fauna of thrips. The results confirm the presence of 112 species in 52 genera and 4 families. Our survey indicates that this reserve contains a great biodiversity of Thysanoptera. A full check-list of species is provided.

Quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is widely used for gene expression analysis in living organisms, and stably expressed endogenous reference genes are needed to obtain accurate results. Some commonly used reference genes varied among different experimental treatments. To obtain suitable reference gene for specific experimental conditions, the stability of 10 reference genes of Bactrocera (Tetradacus) minax (Enderlein) were evaluated in various development stages, and under temperatureand γ-irradiation-stress conditions by semi-quantitative PCR. The present results indicated that the most stable candidate reference gene was RPL32 in eggs, 3rd instars, 1-, 90- and 160-day-pupae and newly emerged female and male adults (< 24 h), and under different stress conditions, i.e., 35 °C temperature stress for 0 h, 1 h, 3 h and 5 h, and 4 °C temperature stress for 0 h, 12 h, 36 h, 48 h and 60 h. GAPDH, G6PDH and RPL32 were ideal candidate endogenous genes under 35 °C temperature stress for 0 h, 1 h, 3 h and 5 h, and under 4 °C temperature stress for 0 h, 12 h, 36 h, 48 h and 60 h, and under a Γ irradiation stress of 90 Gy. These results provide basic information for future studies of gene expression in B. minax, and should serve as a resource to screen reference genes for gene expression studies in other insect species.

Plecopteran species of the family Leuctridae were collected and studied from the Shennongjia Nature Reserve, Hubei Province, China. Seven species were collected from Shennongjia belonging to 2 genera, and including 1 new species and 1 new record for the province, both within the genus Rhopalopsole. Rhopalopsole memorabilis sp. nov. is described and a redescription of R. apicispina Yang & Yang, 1991 is provided.

For poikilothermic groups such as insects, the capacity to adapt to different temperature regimes is particularly important for survival. To investigate the possible role of heat shock proteins (Hsps) in the invasive pest, the rice water weevil (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, Coleoptera: Curculionidae), we first analyzed the composition and expression profile of Hsp families under sub-lethal temperatures of 0 °C and 43 °C, using the quantitative realtime polymerase chain reaction. Eight genes coding Hsp90, Hsp70, and small Hsps were upregulated under heat stress, while only 1 Hsp70 gene and 1 Hsp90 gene were up-regulated under cold stress. Results indicate that Hsps from all families except Hsp60 are responsible for the capacity of L. oryzophilus to tolerate temperature stress, although more genes were up-regulated, and more rapidly, under heat stress than under cold stress. Secondly Hsp expression patterns in diapausing and non-diapausing female adults were investigated. The results showed that rice water weevils in diapause up-regulated no Hsp gene but they downregulated 4 small Hsps, 2 Hsp90, 1 Hsp70 and 1 Hsp60 genes.

Four new species of Limoniidae (Diptera) are described from the Inner-West Anatolian subregion of Turkey (provinces of Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya and Uşak), and their male genitalia are illustrated for Ellipteroides (Protogonomyia) murati sp. nov., Molophilus (s.str.) aktashi sp. nov., Molophilus (s.str.) hasbenli sp. nov. and Orimarga (s.str.) attautena sp. nov. Characteristic features of the habitats of each species in the localities in which they were collected are given.

Mango cv. ‘Ataulfo’ is perhaps the most popular mango produced in Mexico. The presence of high densities of thrips in mango blossoms, mainly the species Frankliniella invasor Sakimura, has been linked to yield decline. Growers spray synthetic insecticides on a regular basis against thrips to reduce their numbers, but no studies on the effectiveness of these insecticides have been conducted. The present study was undertaken with the objective of assessing the toxicity of 4 insecticides commonly used by growers. Commercial formulations of spinosad, imidacloprid, malathion, and α-cypermethrin were evaluated on adults of F. invasor under laboratory conditions. Six concentrations of each insecticide were assessed: 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 ppm. Snap bean pods were submerged into the different concentrations of insecticides, dried on paper towels, and placed in a plastic container with the thrips adults. A completely randomized design with 10 replicates per treatment was performed. Probit analyses revealed that spinosad and α-cypermethrin were the most toxic insecticides for F. invasor with estimated LC₅₀ values of 0.413 and 0.636 ppm, respectively. No significant differences in toxicity were found between imidacloprid (LC₅₀ = 23.013 ppm) and malathion (LC₅₀ = 34.422 ppm). Mortality in control treatments (distilled water) was never higher than 14%. Our study suggests the use of spinosad and α-cypermethrin as the best control for F. invasor. However, these results should be complemented with field evaluations before being recommended to mango growers.

Acacia mangium (Fabales: Fabaceae) is broadly used in restoration process of degraded lands in tropical and subtropical regions. Thus, our aim was to assess the spatial distribution of arthropods on tree crown (vertical- upper, median and lower canopy and horizontalnorth, south, east and west) and leaf surfaces (adaxial and abaxial) of A. mangium trees. Phytophagous arthropods and natural enemies were quantified biweekly in 20 trees during three years. The Shannon index (H') of phytophagous insects were higher on the abaxial surface of leaves on branches facing the west side and basal thirds, while the lowest index was found on the adaxial surface of leaves on branches facing north and on trunk of A. mangium. The natural enemies and pollinators presented the highest H' indexes on the abaxial surface of leaves on branches facing north on basal thirds of A. mangium, while the lowest index values were found on the adaxial surface of leaves on branches facing the other sides. Trigona spinipes Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Meliponinae), Aethalion reticulatum (Hemiptera: Aetalionidae) and Pentatomidae sp.1 (Hemiptera) were the most abundant and with the lowest k-dominance on different parts of A. mangium trees. Camponotus sp.2 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), Tetragonisca angustula (Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and Polistes sp. (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) had higher abundance and lower k-dominance. These results may be a support for programs of pest control and maintenance of natural enemies and pollinators in future plantations of A. mangium. For instance, application of biopesticides may reach better results if aimed directly to the preferred sites of target organisms, beyond minimizing possible negative effects on non-target ones.

Rhyssomatus subtilis Fiedler (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is an important pest of the soybean crop in northwestern Argentina. Few studies have been made on specific parameters of its life history and ecology. The aim of this study was to determine the number of larval stages of R. subtilis. One thousand and eighteen larvae were collected from soybean plants during 2 yr (2011 and 2013), and head capsule width of each larva was measured. For analysis of data, the Hcap program and Dyar's rule were used. The Hcap program showed 4 different peaks in the frequency distribution of the head capsule widths. This result also agreed with Dyar's rule that revealed a perfect geometric larval growth pattern for each instar by regression analysis. The excellent fit to a linear model, indicates that no instar was overlooked. This research identified 4 instars for R. subtilis.

Information on ground-dwelling arthropod densities is important for efficient management in agro-ecosystems. A method of using paired pitfall traps with different inter-trap distances, called the two-circle method (TCM), was proposed recently for accurate and efficient estimation of arthropod densities. Using the numbers of individuals caught in paired traps and the inter-trap distances between the paired traps as input, the TCM can simultaneously estimate the effective trapping radius and the population density by fitting a nonlinear model. However, the previous fitting procedure (using the nonlinear least squares approach) provides the estimates and standard errors of only these two variables, and often suffers from its hypersensitivity to the initial values assigned in the nonlinear regression. To estimate the confidence intervals of these estimates and to assess the effects of the number of replications per distance class and the number of distance classes on the accuracy of density estimates, we provide a new procedure for fitting the model by using the optimization function. Evaluation based on simulated and field data suggests that the TCM could provide a reliable estimate of density by using at least 15 paired traps per distance class and at least 4 distance classes.

The dynamics of predation by the green lacewing Chrysoperla externa Hagen (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) on Enneothrips flavens Moulton (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) was investigated by placing embryonated eggs and first-instar larvae of C. externa on potted peanut plants (Arachis hypogaea L.; Fabales: Fabaceae) in a greenhouse. The plants that received either embryonated eggs or larvae of C. externa showed significant reductions in the mean numbers of thrips, about 9 days after the release of the predator on the plants. The potential of C. externa as a biological control agent for thrips is discussed.

A new species of the genus Sonagara Moore, 1882 (Lepidoptera: Thyrididae: Striglinae), S. bifurcatis sp. nov., is described from southern China and northern Vietnam. The new species is similar to S. strigipennis Moore in external morphology, but can be easily distinguished by the forewing having a brownish black line stretched from the apical angle to the outer side of inner margin, and the male genitalia with gnathos having peg-like teeth and with a short and broad valva. Adults and male genitalia are illustrated. The holotype is deposited in the Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.

Spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe ssp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek) is an invasive plant from Eurasia that degrades pastures and rangelands in the western United States and Canada. A biological control program for spotted and diffuse (C. diffusa Lamarck) knapweeds was initiated in the 1960s, with 13 species of insects introduced and established in the United States and Canada. The program has largely been considered a success and Larinus minutus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is considered to be one of the key agents responsible for the reduction of knapweeds. Spotted knapweed expanded its range into the southeastern United States, but biological control was not used against the weed in this region until recently. Larinus minutus were released in 6 counties in Arkansas from 2008 through 2012. Weekly sweep-net sampling to monitor weevil activity showed establishment of the weevils in 5 counties. The numbers of L. minutus captured at each site increased from 2010 to 2012. Larinus minutus in Arkansas was univoltine and sex ratios were 1:1, except during flowering, when the proportion of females captured increased. Eggs were not present in females until 1 week after flowering of spotted knapweed.

Ants of the genus Solenopsis are common in urban environments due to their abilities to explore resources and to establish nesting sites, which helps their proliferation and also increases the occurrence of encounters with people and severe stinging. We aimed to increase understanding of this species in urban areas, so this study attempted to answer these questions: Are certain seasons more amenable to the founding of new colonies? Does colony size vary among seasons? What sites are used by these colonies in an urban environment? Observations were carried out every 2 weeks from May 2011 to Apr 2012 in Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil. For each active colony the site and the dimensions of the nest were registered. We showed that colonies of Solenopsis saevissima (Smith, 1855) were present in urban areas during the entire yr, with the highest incidence in the wet season, and nesting sites were associated mainly with vegetation. Because the dry season (Apr—Aug) was the period that had the smallest number of active colonies, this period could be considered the most favorable for area-wide control operations, but an individual mound treatment approach in the dry season should be take into consideration the occurrence of cryptic mounds.

Among the Hemiptera, the Auchenorrhyncha are well known owing to their phytosanitary relevance since the group includes pathogen vector species able to damage commercial crops. Vicia villosa Roth (Fabaceae) is a fodder plant species, mainly distributed in central Argentina. Previous contributions have shown that V. villosa is colonized by diverse species of Auchenorrhyncha, either naturalized or native to valley of Colorado River area, in southern Buenos Aires province. To date, the only information about the species of hoppers associated with Vicia has come from preliminary field observations. The dearth of demographic knowledge about these phytophagous insects associated with this crop in Argentina motivates the study. The aims of this work were: 1) to characterize the diversity of the species of Auchenorrhyncha associated with V. villosa and 2) to determine the seasonal fluctuation of the most abundant species in relation to local weather variables and crop phonological phases. The study was conducted in Vicia plots located at EEA INTA Hilario Ascasubi (S 39° 23′ 36″ -W 62° 37′ 59″, 15 m.a.s.l.) southern Buenos Aires province. The specimens were collected with a sweep net during 2 yr (2009 and 2011). Weather variables were recorded using a meteorological station located at the sampling site. To measure species richness and community diversity we calculated both Margalef (D_Mg) and the Simpson (D) indexes, and also, the Relative Importance Index (RII). The relationships between population densities of the leafhoppers, Paratanus exitiosus (Beamer) and Agalliana ensigera Oman (Cicadellidae), with weather variables were analyzed through simple and multiple linear regression. A total of 17 species were associated with V. villosa crops in Argentina, of which 15 belong to the Cicadellidae and 2 to the Delphacidae. Abundance and species richness were higher in 2009 than in 2011. In general, the results of the Margalef index showed that species richness was higher in 2009, while Simpson Index (D) indicated a higher dominance in 2011 than in 2009. The species, P. exitiosus and A. ensigera, stood out for their abundance, frequency and phytosanitary relevance during the sampling period. Both species presented population increases since Nov coinciding with different phenological phases of the crop and the maximum density of the canopy. Additionally, the population density of P. exitiosus showed strong dependence on the hydric balance and photoperiod, while A. ensigera was influenced by Degree-days₁₀ and hydric balance. Vicia villlosa was a new host-plant record for 15 species. Buenos Aires province was cited as a new distribution record for 2 species.

A new whitefly species, Aleuroclava tianmuensis Wang & Dubey (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is described from Daphniphyllum macropodum Miq. (Saxifragales: Daphniphyllaceae) and Litsea cubeba (Lours.) Pers. (Laurales: Lauraceae) from Tianmu Mountain (China). The puparium of this new species differs from that of the closely related species Aleuroclava gordoniae (Takahashi) by the presence of median tubercles on the abdominal segments, the position of the cephalic setae, and by the absence of a minute tubercle associated with the thoracic tracheal pores. An identification key of Aleuroclava species known from China is provided.

Four new species of the genus Amphinemura (Plecoptera: Nemouridae) were described from Sichuan, China with morphological descriptions and illustrations, i.e., A. gyracantha Ji & Du sp. nov., A. digitata Ji & Du sp. nov., A. spinellosa Du & Ji sp. nov., and A. qingchengshana Ji & Du sp. nov. A. gyracantha is similar to Amphinemura dispositspina Du & Wang, 2007 in the epiproct, but the morphology of the lateral arm of the epiproct and the median paraproct lobe of the new species is diagnostic. A. digitata is related to A. sclerotica Du and Zhou, 2007 in having a similar paraproct in the ventral view, but the epiproct of two new species is distinct. A. spinellosa is similar to A. lii Zhu and Yang, 2003 in the paraproct, but A. denticulat can be easily separated by inner lobe slightly sclerotized and outer lobe separated from median lobe. A. qingchengshana is related to A. claassenia Wu, 1935 in having a similar epiproct, but they differ mostly in the details of paraproct.

Our prior research revealed that there are 2 mitochondrial clades of Aphelinus mali (Haldeman) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in China, which are known as SD clade and LN clade. To further reveal their genetic characteristics and to determine the degrees of hybridization and gene flow between the 2 clades of A. mali in China, we analyzed the genetic diversities and genetic structures of 16 populations from 6 provinces (Shandong, Liaoning, Hebei, Shanxi, Xinjiang, and Yunnan) using 8 micro satellite loci. Our results showed that among the pure populations in the SD and LN clades, the greatest genetic diversities were found in the Qingdao, Shandong (QD) population and in the Dalian, Liaoning (DL) population. QD was the first population of the SD clade to be established, and DL was the first population of the LN clade to be established. In addition, genetic diversity was not substantially lower - and in some cases it was greater - in mixed-clade populations than in QD and DL. Individuals within each mitochondrial clade could not be differentiated based on microsatellite loci. Our data confirmed that the QD and DL populations, which were the first to be established in China, have served as bridgeheads for the other SD and LN populations in China. The results demonstrated that the hybridization or gene flow has occurred between the 2 mitochondrial clades.

A new species of the clearwing moths, Oligophlebia minor XU & ARITA sp. nov. from Guangxi, South China was described. Photos of adult and male genitalia were provided. The type specimens are deposited in Department of Entomology, South China Agricultural University.

The Syneches signatus species-group (Diptera: Empidoidea: Hybotidae) characterized with the flattened abdomen and modified hind leg is a small and unique group in Syneches. Here we report that this species group is newly found in Tibet with 2 species, Syneches bigoti Bezzi and S. nigrescens sp. nov. Syneches bigoti Bezzi is reported from the Chinese mainland for the first time. A key to the known species of this group from Asia is presented.

To overcome host plant defense mechanisms, herbivorous insects have developed a series of strategies, which include changes in reliance on various classes of detoxification enzymes. There are few relevant experimental studies on detoxification enzymes of whitefly biotypes B and Q when shifting to different host plants. Here we report changes in the activities of carboxylesterase (CarE), cytochrome-P450-dependent monooxygenase (P450), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) of B. tabaci biotypes B and Q, 24 h after these biotypes had been transferred from cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.; Cucurbitaceae) to numerous other host species belong to 29 families. The aim of this study was to compare the differential utilization of the above detoxifying enzymes by these 2 B. tabaci biotypes when the latter were subjected to shifts between host species. The GST activities of these 2 biotypes did not change significantly 24 h after being shifted from cucumber to various other hosts. However after such recent shifts from cucumber to various other host species, most values of CarE and P450 of biotype Q were significantly higher than those of biotype B at P < 0.05. The experiments revealed that B. tabaci biotypes utilize different defense strategies of differentially inducing detoxification enzymes when facing a variety of host shifts.

Trypetidomima Townsend is a Neotropical Rhinophoridae genus with a single species, T. lutea Townsend, from southeastern Brazil. Based on comprehensive material from Atlantic Forest localities, we found a new species of Trypetidomima, herein described and named as T. fusca sp. nov., with geographical occurrence in the State of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. With the addition of this new species, the genus is redefined, and an identification key is provided to distinguish between the 2 known species. The type-species, T. lutea Townsend, is redescribed, including the description of the previously unknown female.

The effect of photoperiod and temperature on Piezodorus guildinii (Westwood) adult body morphometry, color, lipid content, development of reproductive organs, and feeding activity at different ages was studied in the laboratory. Three different conditions were tested, each at 80 ± 10% RH: 14:10 h L:D at 25 °C, 10:14 h L:D at 25 °C, and 10:14 h L:D at 20 °C. Adults at 25 °C under 14 h photophase were larger and exhibited lower lipid content than those held at 20 °C under 10 h photophase. Highest percentages of females with clear pronotum band and connexivum were recorded at 10 h photophase regardless of the temperature. Development of the ovary was affected by both photoperiod and temperature. At 15, 30 and 45 days of age under 14 h photophase at 25 °C, the percentage of females with immature ovaries remained constant at 0%; in contrast, at 10 h (20 °C) this percentage declined from 60 to 33%. Testes size was affected by photoperiod and temperature; males at 14 h (25 °C) and at 10 h (20 °C) showed the largest and the smallest testes, respectively. The ectodermal sac condition was affected starting with males 15 days of age; the percentage of males with an expanded ectodermal sac was greater under the 14 h (25 °C) treatment than under the 10 h (20 °C) treatment. Feeding activity of adults under short photophase conditions (10 h) decreased. These laboratory results indicate that adults of P. guildinii maintained under a short (10 h) photophase at 20 °C enter into reproductive diapause, accumulate energetic reserves (lipids), show undeveloped reproductive structures and smaller size, clear coloration of the pronotum band and connexivum, and less feeding activity.

The objective of this study was to determine the spatial patterns and associations of the South American fruit fly (Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann); Diptera: Tephritidae) and its parasitoids in organic orchards of common guava and pineapple guava. The field study was conducted from Feb to Mar 2010 in 2 organically-managed orchards, one of common guava (Psidium guajava L.) (Myrtaceae) and the other of pineapple guava [Acca sellowiana (O. Berg) Burret] (Myrtaceae), in Rio Grande do Sul (RS) state, Brazil. Fruits were sampled from all trees at 2 sampling occasions, spaced 15 days apart, just before fruits were in the final maturation period. On each tree, 10 fruits were randomly collected from the entire canopy and held in the laboratory until the flies had pupated. Heterogeneity of insect count data was analyzed by fitting theoretical distributions to the data and calculating dispersion indices. The spatial arrangement was evaluated with SADIE. Local spatial associations were measured using a SADIE association index (I_t^a). In a common guava orchard the emerged individuals were A. fraterculus, and its parasitoid, Doryctobracon areolatus (Szépligeti) (Par) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) with a parasitism rate of 8.3%. The same 2 species occurred in a pineapple guava orchard, where the parasitism rate was 25.5%. The variances of the data for both the A. fraterculus and D. areolatus were greater than the corresponding means for most cases, hence the significance of both the dispersion index (I) and the values of k of the negative binomial suggested an aggregated distribution pattern. On the other hand, the clustering indices (v_i. and v_j) and I_t^a suggested a random spatial pattern of A. fraterculus and the parasitoid for most situations (orchards and sampling times). Spatial association indices revealed significant associations for 5 of the 12 pair-wise comparisons, 3 in the common guava orchard and 2 in the pineapple guava orchard.

Present studies on biology of melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) revealed that the freshly laid eggs were glistening white, slightly curved, tapering at one end while rounded at the other end. The mean length and breadth of the egg were found to be 1.13 ± 0.14 mm and 0.28 ± 0.05 mm. The first and second instars measured 1.49 ± 0.28 and 6.40 ± 0.86 mm in length, respectively, and 0.31 ± 0.07 and 1.21 ± 0.09 mm in breadth, respectively. The third instar was very mobile and measured 9.62 ± 0.87 mm in length and 2.05 ± 0.32 mm in breadth. The puparium measured 5.72 ±0.13 mm in length and 2.46 ± 0.11 mm in breadth. The length and breadth of male was 8.74 ± 0.32 mm and 11.46 ± 1.16 mm, whereas, the female measured 9.94 ± 0.20 mm in length and 15.92 ± 0.74 mm in breadth. The duration of egg incubation, and the larval, prepupal and pupal periods were 16.8 ± 4.9 hours, and 4.5 ± 1.13, 0.8 ± 0.25 and 8.4 ± 0.51 days, respectively. Pre-oviposition and oviposition periods ranged from 10–15 and 12–28 days. Fecundity varied from 58–92 eggs, while egg viability was 86.1 ± 0.54. Sex ratio (male: female) was 1.10 ± 0.14. Longevity of adults was extended to 30–52 days for males and 30–60 days for females when fed either water, molasses and honey or water, molasses and proteinex. Lack of access to water led to sudden death of the flies.

The genus Ricanoides Zia, 1935 is revised. The genus includes 5 species as follows: R. flabellum Noualhier, 1896 (China: Guizhou, Guangdong, Taiwan; Burma; India), R. liboensis sp. nov. (China: Guizhou), R. melanicus sp. nov. (China: Guizhou), R. pipera (Distant, 1914), comb. nov. (China: Taiwan, Hainan; Japan; India) and R. rotundatus sp. nov. (China: Guizhou, Guangxi). All 5 species (including the above-mentioned 3 new species) are described or redescribed and illustrated. A new combination, R. pipera (Distant, 1914) comb, nov., is proposed (previously placed in the genus Pochazia). A key to all species of this genus is given.

The need for new bioinsecticidal compounds motivates the study of natural products. Therefore, we studied the activity of Crescentia alata Kuth (Lamiales: Bignoniaceae) against Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). We showed that C. alata has bioinsectidal activity. After 7 days of exposure to C. alata fractions in the diet at 200 ppm, fractions 3, 4 and 7 caused 90.7% weight loss in the larvae, and at 100 ppm, fractions 2, 4, 7 and 8 caused 90.1% weight loss with respect to the control. After 14 days of exposure to fractions 4 and 7 at 200, 100, and 50 ppm, the larvae had lost 94% of their weight compared to the control. There were large differences in larval mortalities between treatments, and fractions 5 and 6 at 200, 100, and 50 ppm induced the highest mortalities, which ranged from 65 to 80%. Possibly the iridoids identified from the C. alata fruit fractions are responsible for the antifeedant activity and mortality of S. frugiperda. This is the first report of C. alata fractions being evaluated as biocides of S. frugiperda.

We studied the community of fruit flies in an agricultural habitat (guava orchards) and the adjoining native vegetation, in a caatinga-cerrado transition region in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Sampling was conducted with McPhail traps and by collecting guavas and other fruits in native vegetation. The 3 most common fruit-fly species in the orchards were Anastrepha zenildae Zucchi, A. sororcula Zucchi, and A. fraterculus (Wiedemann), whereas the most common species in the forest fragments were A. zenildae, A. picked Lima, and A. montei Lima. The species of fruit flies recorded in the forests were also collected in the guava orchards. Species of economic importance, such as A. zenildae, use forest fruits as alternative hosts. Fruit-fly diversity is supported by the presence of native vegetation fragments adjacent to agricultural areas.

A new species of the aleocharine genus Agaricomorpha Ashe (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Aleocharinae), A. ashei sp. nov., in Korea is described. A key to the known species of Agaricomorpha is provided. We also present the habitus illustration with line drawings of the diagnostic characters. This represents the third known Agaricomorpha species and the first occurrence of the genus in the Palaearctic region.

Efficacies of topical applications and dry residues of 9 common ready-to-use (RTU) insecticides were evaluated against brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) at intervals of exposure of 1 and 48 h. Permethrin and acetamiprid, were further evaluated to determine if H. halys recovered after an initial exposure. Topical applications of carbaryl, permethrin, insecticidal soap, petroleum oil, and acetamiprid, and residues of permethrin and acetamiprid increased mortality of adults. Topical applications of spinosad, essential oils, carbaryl, permethrin, insecticidal soap, petroleum oil, and acetamiprid, and residues of carbaryl, permethrin, and acetamiprid increased mortality of nymphs. Topical applications of carbaryl, neem oil, insecticidal soap, and acetamiprid increased egg mortality. In general, nymphs were more susceptible to insecticides than adults. Adult H. halys recovered after exposure to topical applications, but not dry residues of permethrin. Clearly, several RTU insecticides in the marketplace demonstrated potential to help gardeners manage H. halys.

Phaenochitonia pseudodebilis Hall & Willmott, 1996 (Lepidoptera: Riodinidae) was described based on a single male specimen from Mato Grosso State, Brazil. Here we provide the first description of the female of P. pseudodebilis as well an update on its geographical distribution

More than 73,000 Megamelus scutellaris (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) were released in Florida over a 2 to 3 yr period at 10 sites in an attempt to establish sustainable populations on waterhyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes Mart. Solms (Commelinales: Pontederiaceae). Insect populations persisted at most sites including those furthest north and consecutive overwintering was confirmed in as many as three times at some sites. Establishment appeared to be promoted at sites with some cover or shading compared to open areas. Insects readily dispersed over short distances which made detection and monitoring difficult.

Insects pests of stored products and by-products are extending their feeding preferences to new items. We report for the first time in Brazil the feeding and reproduction of the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne F. (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) on stored chamomile, Matricaria recutita L. (Asteraceae). One intact package (10 cm wide × 15 cm long) of M. recutita infested by L. serricorne was purchased in a supermarket in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. In this sample this insect had fed on the dried parts (inflorescences and rods), which made the product unfit for human consumption. This 20 g sample included 101 live and 4 dead Lasioderma serricorne. Circumstantial evidence suggested that the infested material was probably harvested from an infested field in Apr 2013 and packaged with L. serricorne eggs, and that these had developed into the adults found in the package.

An aphid parasitoid, Aphelinus basilicus Fatima & Hayat (Aphelinidae: Aphelininae) is described from material collected in Bengaluru, Karnataka for the first time. It was found to parasitize apterous viviparous females of the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover) infesting Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae), during Jul, 2013. Field data indicated that the parasitoid, Aphelinus basilicus parasitized dark green forms (88%) of A. gossypii more frequently than pale green (24%) and yellow forms (2%) suggesting that the body color strongly influenced the host preference for foraging. The 3 color forms were differentially susceptible to selection by the parasitoid. Statistical analysis revealed that the parasitoid had an inherent preference for dark green forms (P < 0.05). Information on the parasitoid's distribution, diagnostic characters, host range and host preference are presented to ease the identification as well as to understand the fundamentals of host selection behavior of this species. This is a new distributional record of Aphelinus basilicus parasitizing color forms of A. gossypii associated with G. hirsutum in Karnataka, India.

As part of a survey on necrophagous Diptera species in a fragment of seasonally dry tropical forest in Brazil, six species of Calliphoridae are reported here for the first time in the caatinga, a biome exclusive to Brazil. Three species native to the Neotropical region (Cochliomyia macellaria, Chloroprocta idioidea, Lucilia eximia) and 3 exotic species (Chrysomya albiceps, C. putoria and C. megacephala) are reported to occur simultaneously associated with pig carcasses in the semiarid region of Brazil. The invasive potential of Chrysomya species is likely to produce deleterious effects on native blow fly populations in the near future.

The brown Lygodium defoliating moth, Neomusotima conspurcatalis Warren (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), was released beginning in 2008 to control Old World climbing fern, Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br (Polypodiales: Lygodiaceae). The moth readily established in Jonathan Dickinson State Park, but at other sites populations remained at low densities or were locally extirpated. In 2012 and 2013, we recovered N. conspurcatalis populations at all original release sites except Everglades National Park and those treated with herbicide. The original releases of 4,000 or more individuals per site were entirely successful, pointing to a strategy that focuses on numbers at this target level or beyond for future releases in Florida.

It was unknown whether twolined chestnut borer, Agrilus bilineatus (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), a common secondary agent of tree decline in eastern US oak forests, contributed to tree mortality during a recent (1999–2003) episode of oak decline in the Ozark Mountains. Adult beetle flight was monitored by trapping in 2001, 2003, and 2004 and oak branches and trunks were visually examined for exit holes and dissected to examine larval galleries. Very few A. bilineatus adults were found each year by trapping (< 10 as opposed to > 100 red oak borers [Enaphalodes rufulus; Coleoptera: Cerambycidae]), and no evidence of A. bilineatus was found in 70 dissected tree boles or in upper crown material, although other buprestids (Chrysobothris femorata) were noted.

The gall-wasp, Leptocybe invasa Fisher & La-Salle (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), a pest native to Australia, was introduced into several countries with eucalyptus cultivation. This insect has high damage capacity and reproductive rate. Leptocybe invasa was recorded in the Itapoã farm (S 19° 18′ 06″ -W 44° 30′ 13″), Paraopeba municipality, Minas Gerais State, Brazil in areas of research, nursery and in the field. Maximum, minimum, and ambient temperatures and relative humidity were 23 °C, 14 °C and 21 °C and 67%, respectively. Leptocybe invasa is a significant pest problem in Minas Gerais State, Brazil, because this state has 1,400,000 ha of the eucalyptus plantations of Brazil.

The mite Floracarus perrepae Knihinicki & Boczek (Acariformes: Eriophyidae), a biological control agent of Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br (Polypodiales: Lygodiaceae), Old World climbing fern, was released in south Florida from 2008 to 2010 but did not readily establish in the field. The original release sites were re surveyed in 2013 and the mite has established within Jonathan Dickinson State Park and has dispersed to L. microphyllum patches outside the park at a rate of 3.5 ± 0.6 km/yr. The mite has also dispersed to the Cape Sable region of Everglades National Park.

The feeding responses of the predatory stink bugs E. floridanus and P. maculiventris to the citrus root weevil D. abbreviatus were studied at the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry's Florida Biological Control Laboratory in Gainesville, FL. This work was done in quarantine at temperatures of 25° ± 3 °C with a 16-hour photoperiod (16:8 L/D) and a relative humidity of 50–55%. The E. floridanus and P. maculiventris males, females and 3rd–5th instars were kept individually in a Petri dish with a bean pod and moistened paper for 24 h. They were then exposed to a single D. abbreviatus male or female in Petri-dishes for 24 h. Twenty replications were made. At the end of the experiment percent predation was determined. Euthyrhynchus floridanus was more efficient than P. maculiventris at feeding on D. abbreviatus adults in the lab with no choice tests. This particular stinkbug can be easily mass reared and therefore has potential as augmentative biological control agent for the citrus root weevil. However, more testing is necessary to determine the overall impact of this predator in the field.

Two Asian species of Thripidae are reported breeding in northern Florida on kudzu (Pueraria lobata), Salpingothrips aimotofus Kudo in the shoots, and Megalurothrips distalis Karny in the flowers, the latter being a new record for North America.

Seven plant species are reported for the first time as hosts of Bactrocera carambolae in Brazil. Eugenia stipitata and Pouteria macrophylla, native to the Amazon region, have already been reported as hosts of the carambola fruit fly. The largest number of specimens was obtained from fruits of Averrhoa carambola and Psidium guajaua.

Anthonomus eugenii Cano (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) was observed for the first time in Italy and the Mediterranean Region attacking sweet pepper (Capsicum annum L.; Solanaceae) in greenhouses and in fields in the coastal area of the Lazio Region of Italy. The incursion, detected in Oct 2013, was a heavy infestation of sweet pepper buds and not fully developed fruits, and causing their premature abscission. The outbreak area was delineated by the coast on the west, and hills on the south and east.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is cultivated in subtropical and tropical regions, and in Brazil, commercial orchards began in the 1970–80s. The litchi erinose mite (LEM), Aceria litchii (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae), is a pest of litchi worldwide. In Brazil, LEM was first reported in this crop in São Paulo State in 2008, and Espírito Santo is the second Brazilian state with infestation of this mite discovered in a 18-year-old orchard of 150 plants of the litchi cultivar ‘Bengal’. Cultural and chemical measures for LEM management are presented, and this is the first range expansion of LEM into Espírito Santo State, Brazil.

Blow fly development is frequently used to help determine a time of colonization, which can be used to infer a minimum postmortem interval (mPMI) in death investigations. Fifty larvae of the blow fly Lucilia coeruleiviridis were studied at 25 °C, 14:10 h L:D and ∼60–70% RH. Daily observations were made, and total development times were determined. To our knowledge, this is the first study to record development times for this species.

Psydrothrips kewi Palmer & Mound (Thripidae) is recorded from South America for the first time. This thrips is known to attack a few Araceae species used as ornamentals in USA and in glasshouses in England. We report here P. kewi damaging leaves, stems and flowers of Zantedeschia aethiopica in Northeastern Brazil.

Because of the recent presence of Helicoverpa armigera in Brazil and Paraguay in 2013, pheromone traps were deployed in chickpea crops at 2 localities in Tucumán province to determine if this noctuid was present in Argentina. This pest was detected at both locations, confirming the presence of H. armigera in Argentina for first time.

Five species of Sphenophorus were found in golf courses from 7 states of Mexico on various host plants; Sphenophorus arizonensis Horn from the state of Puebla on Paspalum vaginatum Swartz (new state and host record); Sphenophoruscicatristriatus Fahraeus was collected in Puebla on Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.; Sphenophorusincurrens Gyllenhal was collected in Querétaro on Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst, (new state record); Sphenophorus rectus (Say) was collected in Veracruz on P. clandestinum (new host plant record); and Sphenophorus venatus vestitus Chittenden was collected in Puebla, Veracruz, Guerrero, Baja California Sur and Nuevo León on C.dactylon and in Guanajuato on Lolium perenne L. (new host record). This information will aid in the development of improved management tactics for Sphenophorus species attacking turfgrass in México.

The addition of a trap baited with manuka oil or longer lasting cubeb oil lures (Hanula et al. 2013) along with those baited with ethanol for surveys targeting detection of non-native, invasive Curculionidae could improve these surveys by also targeting the destructive redbay ambrosia beetle.